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J.UME XXVI NUMBER ONE
JOURNAL
of the
SOCIETY OF MOTION
PICTURE ENGINEERS
JANUARY, 1936
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JOURNAL
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MOTION PICTURE ENGINEERS
Volume XXVI JANUARY, 1936 Number 1
CONTENTS
Page
The Development and Use of Stereo Photography for Educa-
tional Purposes C. KENNEDY 3
Report of the Standards Committee 18
Report of the Sound Committee 21
Presidential Address H. G. TASKER 28
Continuous Photographic Processing H. D. HINELINE 38
Optical Printing and Technic LYNN DUNN 54
Wide-Range Reproduction in Theaters
J. P. MAXFIELD AND C. FLANNAGAN 67
An Investigation of Sources of Direct Current for the Non-
Rotating High-Intensity Reflecting Arc C. C. DASH 79
Trends in 16-Mm. Projection, with Special Reference to Sound
• . . .A. SHAPIRO 89
Symposium on New Motion Picture Apparatus :
A Wide-Range Studio Spot Lamp for Use with 2000-Watt
Filament Globes E. C. RICHARDSON 95
An Automatic Daylight Continuous 35-Mm. Projection Ma-
chine A.B. SCOTT 102
The Vitachrome Diffusionlite System and Its Application . . .
A. C. JENKING 104
Society Announcements 107
JOURNAL
OF THE SOCIETY OF
MOTION PICTURE ENGINEERS
SYLVAN HARRIS, EDITOR
Board of Editors
J. I. CRABTREE, Chairman
O. M. GLUNT A. C. HARDY L. A. JONES
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Published monthly at Easton, Pa., by the Society of Motion Picture Engineers.
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Entered as second class matter January 15, 1930, at the Post Office at Easton,
Pa., under the Act of March 3, 1879. Copyrighted, 1936, by the Society of
Motion Picture Engineers, Inc.
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and to the author, or authors, of the papers in question. Exact reference as to
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not responsible for statements made by authors.
Officers of the Society
President: HOMER G. TASKER, 4139 38th St., Long Island City, N. Y.
Past-President: ALFRED N. GOLDSMITH, 444 Madison Ave., New York, N. Y.
Executive Vice-President: EMERY HUSE, 6706 Santa Monica Blvd., Hollywood,
Calif.
Engineering Vice-President: LOYD A. JONES, Kodak Park, Rochester, N. Y.
Editorial Vice-President: JOHN I. CRABTREE, Kodak Park, Rochester, N. Y.
Financial Vice-President: OMER M. GLUNT, 463 West St., New York, N. Y.
Convention Vice-President: WILLIAM C. KUNZMANN, Box 6087, Cleveland, Ohio.
Secretary: JOHN H. KURLANDER, 2 Clearfield Ave., Bloomfield, N. J.
Treasurer: TIMOTHY E. SHEA, 463 West St., New York, N. Y.
Governors
MAX C. BATSEL, Front & Market Sts., Camden, N. J.
LAWRENCE W. DAVEE, 250 W. 57th St., New York, N. Y.
ARTHUR S. DICKINSON, 28 W. 44th St., New York, N. Y.
HERBERT GRIFFIN, 90 Gold St., New York, N. Y.
ARTHUR C. HARDY, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Mass.
GERALD F. RACKETT, 823 N. Seward St., Hollywood, Calif.
CARRINGTON H. STONE, 205 W. Wacker Drive, Chicago, 111.
SIDNEY K. WOLF, 250 W. 57th St., New York, N. Y.
THE DEVELOPMENT AND USE OF STEREO PHO-
TOGRAPHY FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES*
C. KENNEDY**
Summary. — Investigating the possibilities of stereo photography in connection with
i he study of art and other subjects in schools and colleges, the various properties and the
historical development of stereo are analyzed, and the significance of the outstanding
steps in the development pointed out.
After reviewing the theoretical conditions for accurate reconstruction of the binocular
visual image, the practicability of the system using polarized anaglyphs is demon-
strated and the advantages of stereo and its probable use in education discussed.
The conclusions here presented embody the first results of an inves-
tigation along practical lines made at the instance of the Carnegie
Corporation and forming a part of the Corporation's carefully con-
sidered program to stimulate and improve education in the fine arts.
The writer was chosen to guide this particular project in its initial
stages for the reason that, over a considerable number of years, in
connection with research in the field of Italian sculpture at Smith
College and under the auspices of that College in Italy, he had had
the most exacting practical experience in the photography of objects
of art, and had been active in the publication of these studies in a
series of volumes illustrated by actual photographic prints.
The problem in the form in which it was presented may be stated
simply: sculpture is a three-dimensional art; for years, in fact since
the earliest days of photography, the effective way in which the
third dimension is reproduced by stereo photography has been em-
phasized in theory and, under various conditions, proved in practice ;
why, then, is its use for serious study in our colleges and secondary
schools practically non-existent? After a period of the most exag-
gerated popular enthusiasm for its miracle-working properties, an
enthusiasm that reached its height not far from a century ago, the
stereo viewer, with its battery of warped cardboard stereograms, has
been laid upon the shelf. Every attempt to revive it in a different
*Presented at the Fall, 1935, Meeting at Washington, D. C.
**Smith College, Northampton, Mass.
4 C. KENNEDY fj. S. M. P. E.
form has been heralded by the Press as the promise of a new wonder
of the age, but, from the point of view of general interest, has failed
of its mark. Even very real steps in advance have been turned to
account only for technical side issues, such as surveying, or have be-
come the hobby of a somewhat fanatical brotherhood of camera own-
ers who have, in their enthusiasm, gone even as far as to publish their
own periodical, but have never succeeded in establishing stereo
photography as a normal and basic means of presenting visual truth.
Recent technical literature is full of mournful allusions to the beau-
ties of stereoscopy, and the assertion that there is no sensible explana-
tion of its failure to find its proper recognition. Yet one can not pos-
sibly postulate apathy upon the part of the public : if we may take
the newspapers as an indication of the attitude of the masses we can
discern in their policy so tense an expectation that stereo is to be the
new order of things that they rush into print with the wildest schemes
of the crank inventor. Recognizing this, the Carnegie Corporation
had reason to hope that the trouble lay only in the fact that the pub-
lic had not been given solid enough food — that they had outgrown
their wonder at viewing a child with a doll through an antimacassar,
and even the Obelisk of Luxor — and it was the writer's job to make
new stereograms providing material for more serious pursuits — for
the study of the sculptures of Donatello and of Michelangelo. It was
in trying to do this that I became aware of factors that provided, I
believe, a more fundamental explanation of the situation, and gave
me faith in the importance of stereo in the future.
These factors may be summarized under two headings, of one of
which we are acutely aware. This is the unsocial character of all
practical stereo viewing to date : it has remained, in a sense, a labora-
tory phenomenon, because only one person at a time can see a given
view; and even he must, for that moment, submit to being cut off
from the outside world while he holds his eyes stationary before a
piece of unfamiliar apparatus. Though that is probably the chief
reason why stereo has remained a thing apart, it is doubtful whether
it can alone account for the apathy of the serious student in fields
such as the writer's. To explain such apathy we must first postulate
a property of the intelligence that shows not in conscious theories
but in conduct. Apathy, dissatisfaction, or an unreasoning aversion
may be the result of an unanalytic recognition of positive faults or
even of the lack of something essential, though the individual may be
quite unaware of the nature or the cause of his reactions. My own
Jan., 1936] STEREO PHOTOGRAPHY IN EDUCATION 5
contribution to the photography of sculpture has been to insist upon
qualities that, it is supposed, the average person can not appreciate;
yet in this work the public has invariably responded to them quite
spontaneously once such results had been achieved. Faults of a
secondary order exist in all systems of stereo customarily used, and
personally the writer is convinced that they have been responsible for
more trouble than the small actual differences between right and wrong
would indicate.
It is not proposed to review again the history of stereo, but it may
help to bear in mind the fundamental problem in its simplest form, and
to point out the relation between the various attempted solutions.
Fundamentally it is this : we must procure two pictures correspond-
ing respectively to the images that the two eyes receive when per-
forming their normal functions under the given conditions ; we must
then place the two pictures before the observer in such a way that
each eye again functions normally when presented with its proper
view. Ideally, the eyes should be unable to distinguish the views
from the images they would receive from the object itself under these
same conditions. It is true that the most fantastic proposals pur-
porting to disclose a short-cut to three-dimensional photography are
repeatedly made by persons who claim that by chance or ingenuity
they can produce a stereoscopic effect — note the word effect — with-
out taking two pictures and particularly without providing adequate
means whereby each eye sees its proper image. Thus, they either
ignore or vainly hope to dispense with these requirements, which
H. E. Ives has recently defined as the axioms of stereo photography —
"vainly," because when the observer looks at the three-dimensional
world about him, the images formed upon the retina of his left and
his right eye, respectively, are alike only in one respect, and that is
philosophically, or conceptually; in plainer language, they are im-
ages of the same subject. In every other respect — from the point of
view of geometry, of measurement, and of color — the left and right
eye images that we so carelessly regard as almost the same are actually
completely different. The distances between the trees, the shapes of
the stones, the colors of the leaves are distinctly and measurably dif-
ferent. One of the most amazing of human faculties is the ability of
the mind to unite the flat images upon the left and the right retinas
into a three-dimensional composite that seems to have existence in
space. Every serious proposal, the record of which has figured in
the history of stereoscopy, has admitted the necessity for the two
6 C. KENNEDY [J. S. M. p. E.
images, and inventive energy has expended its force almost exclu-
sively upon devising methods of presenting them separately to the
proper eyes. If one may imagine the two photographs to be the size
of the object itself, he can see that they will occupy their proper posi-
tions in relation to the eye only if they are superposed ; and if the size
be decreased they will still overlap and must be separated. Whether
this be done by crossing the axes of vision before reaching the pic-
tures, placed, in this case, in reverse order side by side, as Eliot pro-
posed; or by mirrors, as Wheatstone first suggested; or by prisms,
or lenses used in such a way as to take advantage of their prismatic
effect when viewed off axis, as they were in the popular Brewster
stereoscope, the parent of most of those in use today; or by making
the positives so small that when viewed through lenses even without
prisms they may stand unreversed side by side, as they do in von
Rohr's doppel-verant; or by transforming them into color anaglyphs —
in all these we may recognize the preoccupation of the inventor with
the problem of providing for the proper disposition of the two photo-
graphs.
Accepting, then, the principle that we must start with two dis-
parate images, there was first the problem of choosing the most prom-
ising of the various methods of separating the images and presenting
each to the proper eye. It seemed reasonable to explore especially
the methods that gave some hope of a really social procedure, which
did not involve a temporary separation of the observer from his fel-
lows. They are few; they reduce, in fact, to two : upon the one hand,
those depending upon a critical angle of view, a device that was used
by Eliot in a crude form and which is much better provided for in the
parallax stereoscope suggested by Ives; and upon the other hand,
those that make use of anaglyphs. In the parallax stereoscope, as in
all the simple forms of apparatus depending upon a critical angle of
view, the possible shift of the point of observation is limited to one-
half the interocular distance, or somewhat less than 35 millimeters,
so that we probably should not have thought of it as capable of a wider
application had it not been for the amazingly complete survey of the
possibilities of the system by Dr. Ives, a survey of which the parallax
panoramagram now successfully used in advertising is an important
by-product. It is the only system that asks nothing of the observer,
and, the writer believes, will have its applications also in education.
Dr. Ives has, however, pointed out its ultimate limitations, which, in
the narrower field of this study, are serious.
Jan., 1936] STEREO PHOTOGRAPHY IN EDUCATION 7
In the past, anaglyphs have been limited, for practical purposes,
to the use of red and green glasses with correspondingly colored im-
ages. It might be possible, and has probably already been proposed,
to select other colors which would at the same time give a more pleas-
ant looking image and reduce the faults arising from color rivalry, of
which more will be said later; but at the present moment in the his-
tory of the industry any method of separating the images by color is
ruled out by the simple fact that it could not be used with color pho-
tography when we get it. It was very fortunate, then, that at this
critical moment, the invention of sheet polarizer made possible upon
a practical scale the differentiation of the images by polarized light, a
method that has long been proposed, and has even been tried upon
an experimental scale, in so far as that was possible, with a Nicol
prism by Anderton as early as 1893. The problem that seemed so
hopeless in the first months of the present investigation could, with
the use of this material, be approached in the most straightforward way.
What were the questions that remained, after this solution for the
basic problem was accepted? It will be seen that, while those re-
sponsible for the progress of stereo to date had been in agreement upon
essentials, they had differed in respect to the convenience or practica-
bility of the methods they proposed, and in the extent to which they
provided, or failed to provide, for the fulfillment of the other condi-
tions implicit in our statement of the problem. Sometimes the limi-
tations seem purely arbitrary. Practically all the cameras built for
stereo have the disadvantage, serious for the author's work, that as
we try to photograph nearer and nearer objects the images of the ob-
jects go farther and farther off the plate. Obviously, this condition
can easily be rectified by giving up the attempt to keep the axes of
the two lenses parallel and by turning the cameras as the eye would
turn. In other cases the limitations are inherent in the method.
Often they are not serious. For example, some systems of stereo
viewing have not been used as commonly as they might otherwise
have been because they require two prints large enough to be prop-
erly viewed at a distance great enough for the eye unaided by lenses
to focus upon them. Such is the case with the Wheatstone stereo-
scope, using mirrors, which, in its simpler forms, requires also the re-
versal of one or both the prints. While this has apparently militated
against the popularity that the device might otherwise have been ex-
pected to have had, the instrument has found its proper uses in the
experimental laboratory where it has been extensively employed, es-
8 C. KENNEDY [J. S. M. P. E.
pecially for the study of the physiological properties of the eye. Many
methods, taking advantage of the commonly accepted theory that the
proper exercise of the physical functions of convergence and accom-
modation is not a necessary condition of reasonable viewing, fail to
provide for one or the other or both. Viewing two transposed pic-
tures set side by side by crossing the axes of vision before reaching the
plane of the pictures obviously gives a convergence that is always ex-
aggeratedly more than what would ordinarily accompany the accom-
modation of the lenses of the eyes looking at the plane ; and since this
situation is so extreme, there is usually no attempt when using the
method to match either convergence or accommodation to the original
experience of the observer when viewing the object. Very few of the
lens stereoscopes are built with a view to reproducing the conditions
of convergence and accommodation; the common type seems rather
to have been constructed on the theory that the most restful position
of the eyes, and therefore (though this does not make sense) the de-
sirable one, is when set for near infinity. Moreover, prisms, in most
of the foims in which they are used, give distortions that we must
assume in general are ignored.
How are we to find our way among the mass of variant interpreta-
tions of the meaning of refinements in stereoscopic presentation ? All
these methods, as contrasted with purely visionary ones, work; and
if they worked well enough we could learn from them how to proceed
in our attempt to solve the purely social aspects of the problem. But,
as used, they are not without annoying defects. In varying ways and
in varying combinations the minor factors that they disregard take
their revenge. Though my eye muscles are practiced in acrobatics,
and I can get beautiful clear images by crossing my gaze to view
transposed pictures, in a few moments I am aware of a painful eye-
strain; and wherever a separation between the normal convergence
and accommodation occurs, this strain develops in a proportionate
degree. The muscles that control the two functions are accustomed
to working in unison, and although they can be trained to operate si-
multaneously for different distances, discomfort, if not pain, results.
Eye-strain of a different kind, which no amount of practice will re-
duce, comes from the struggle and uncertainty to which the two eyes
must submit in attempting to fuse two-color anaglyphs. In viewing
red and green images through corresponding glasses the eye is pre-
sented with two forces working against each other. The forms, which
we shall assume are correct, are working for fusion; the colors are
Jan., 1936 J STEREO PHOTOGRAPHY IN EDUCATION 9
working for disassociation. In passages where form predominates,
as in aerial views filled with minute detail, it will win, and few per-
sons will have difficulty in achieving the three-dimensional sensation.
Where larger areas of unbroken color exist, as they frequently would
in colored anaglyphs of photographs of sculptured surfaces or objects
seen against a plain background, the red area would struggle against
uniting with the green area, and strain would result.
Methods that rely upon attention to fix the gaze of the observer
upon the right one of two pictures make no provision for obliterating
from the field the picture that is not wanted; and it remains, a dis-
turbing image of full intensity having a ghostly existence, flat, to
either side of the desired image in three dimensions.
Another series of annoying phenomena are distortions resulting
from the neglect to take into account all the factors involved in the
reproduction of normal viewing conditions. These have been more
studied of late and it has been pointed out that many of them could
be eliminated by modifications of existing apparatus. The most usual
cause of exaggeration of depth is the intentional use in stereo cameras
of an interlens distance larger than that of the average interocular.
The public is supposed to like it. I could not find, in New York, a
stereo camera that could be adjusted even to my own interocular of
62.5 millimeters. The other most common cause of depth distur-
bance is the failure to fulfill the requirements of a proper optical sys-
tem for the lens viewer. It is here that much work has been done,
though still more needs to be accomplished. The basic rule, as it is
usually put, is that the focal length of the taking lens should be
matched by that of the viewing lens. The real difficulty results from
the change in effective focal length of lenses used on a focusing camera ;
the remedy most recently advocated compensates for the trouble in-
stead of eliminating it, and only under certain conditions is this
advisable.
Eye-strain and depth distortion are merely the two obvious troubles
caused by defective systems. There are others — for example, the
curious appearance that objects have of dropping back into succes-
sive planes instead of rounding plastically. There are indications
that this may be due fundamentally to the failure in stereo still
cameras to turn the plate, or, in a more practical sense, each half of
the camera to correspond with the changing convergence of the
eye. The theory must be that they are designed to work for infinity,
defined in terms of clarity of focus, but stereo vision is very sensitive
10 C. KENNEDY [J. S. M. p. E.
to changes in convergence on objects much more distant than those
in the nearest limits of the depth of field of a lens of the short focal
length used when the two pictures are taken side by side upon the
same plate. Any views not taken with the proper system, even those
of subjects other than sculpture, made with a camera of the accepted
type, will show this defect; with time, one becomes acutely aware
of it. The same effect results from quite different causes : bad defini-
tion due to a poor projecting lens, or coarse grain either in the lantern
slide or in the screen, will destroy or disturb the accurate register of
the smaller disparities upon which our stereoscopic sense of the round-
ing of a surface depends; and again the three-dimensional character
of the subject is reduced to a series of receding planes.
There remains a category of trouble that does not show in deforma-
tions of the stereoscopic views, but makes itself felt by retarding the
action of the eyes in achieving fusion. In the earlier phases of this
work it was quite customary for the observer to whom the views were
being shown to shout, excitedly, "Oh! now I've got it!" When, as
time went on, following the indications of theory, improvements in
quality were introduced by converging the cameras, using larger nega-
tives, reducing screen grain, and projecting through lenses with better
definition, even when the differences were so slight that they seemed
imaginary, the immediacy and ease with which the observer saw the
three-dimensional image increased by geometrical progression. In
the demonstration accompanying this paper, if one has difficulty in
looking at the images upon the screen, either the lack of sufficient il-
lumination, due to the fact that the design of lantern slide projectors
has lagged so far behind that of motion picture projectors, must be
blamed, or the rough surface of the screen. Also it should be remem-
bered that one person in ten may be expected not to have normal
stereoscopic vision, and an observer who does not customarily coor-
dinate the use of his two eyes will see no better, but, if the report of
those who have tried it may be trusted, at least no worse than he us-
ually does. Moreover, the ocular parallax that produces stereoscopic
vision is effective only in the direction of the separation of the eyes ; if
the head is inclined when viewing photographs that were taken with the
camera on its normal horizontal bed, the effectiveness of the disparities
will be diminished. The spectacles are so made as to discourage this.*
*Spectacles equipped with polarizing material1 corresponding to polarizers in
the stereo head of a lantern slide projector were supplied to the audience, with
which to view the stereograms projected upon the screen.
Jan., 1936] STEREO PHOTOGRAPHY IN EDUCATION 11
Judging, then, from the contradictions and inaccuracies in the ex-
perimental data that had accumulated in the past, we might say that
at the outset of this investigation, although we knew the minimum re-
quirements, we could not trust, without testing them further, theo-
ries that this or that additional factor was negligible; the results of
accepted methods have not been good enough to warrant admitting
the assumptions upon which they were based. Moreover, experi-
ments had been difficult to perform. One of the great beauties of
the new polarizer used in this system was that it made possible not
only one but several new methods of viewing stereoscopic photographs
which, between them, permitted the greatest freedom and flexibility
of experimentation. The writer has, moreover, been fortunate in
having been able to avail himself of the technical advice of the inven-
tor, Mr. Land, and of his associate, Mr. Wheelwright, who have
followed the successive stages of the development of the project
with the closest attention.
At the outset, it was decided that the best way of finding what a
good stereo reproduction looked like was to reproduce faithfully, and,
wherever it was possible, in the minutest detail, the physical experi-
ence of vision. If I were asked what were the conditions for perfect
stereo viewing I should not, at this moment, relax any of these pre-
cautions. Since this is, in a sense, the crucial question, we should
perhaps analyze the situation implied by such a statement. For per-
fect viewing, or for orthostereoscopy, one should have two cameras or
their equivalent; toed in for any given picture to the angle of conver-
gence of the eyes; pivoting about an axis corresponding to the axis of
rotation of the eye-balls, and, like that axis, the distance of the radius
of the eye-ball behind the forward nodal point of each lens; and sepa-
rated by the observer's interocular distance. The pictures should
then be seen at actual size, normal to the axis of vision, and points on
a vertical line through the intersection of the axes of vision must be
superposed. For perfect results the observer can be in only one spot,
exactly in front of the point upon which his attention was fastened
(and hence upon which the cameras were focused, a point that would
normally be the middle of the picture) and at the distance equal to
that of the forward nodal point of the taking lenses from this point of
the object. His convergence and accommodation then are matched
and reduplicate those he would have used when looking at the object
from the position of the camera. Even these highly specialized con-
ditions can be achieved with the apparatus now available, and even
12 C. KENNEDY [J. S. M. P. E.
if it be not necessary to insist upon such perfection for practical pur-
poses, it is highly desirable to be able at any time to refer to it as a
standard of excellence.
How far may we safely relax these restrictions in order to adapt the
procedure to larger groups? That question the present demonstra-
tion will answer. As it is now set, the projector marks the line back
of which it would be undesirable to be seated for a projected picture of
the size upon the screen.* If the audience were larger it would be
necessary merely to increase the size of the picture proportionately.
The desirable size, then, as computed for these pictures is approxi-
mately what one would normally use. We accept without much
question distortion of one kind or another in motion pictures as
now shown. Von Rohr has pointed out that because the perspective
of any given view was a function of the distance of the camera from
the object at the time, there is only one spot, at any moment in the
course of the changing conditions that the reel produces, from which
the image upon the screen can look right. Furthermore, in far too
many theaters the angle of projection is extreme, and although, if the
throw is long enough, the focus at top and bottom is passable, the en-
largement of the picture as one looks toward the bottom is pro-
nounced. In most theaters, too, the entire screen is above the au-
dience, so that the angle of view produces distortion even from the
central seats, not to speak of the recognized distortions from the side.
Stereo views are subject in much the same way to exactly the same
destructive forces and there is no theoretical reason why the re-
sults should be worse. This audience has undoubtedly been looking
for distortions, and has seen them. The public, too, may be more
aware of them at first, because of the novelty of the medium; then,
as in the case of flat photography, they may end by ignoring them.
It is possible that, because stereo is so much more completely a repro-
duction of reality, it may be more difficult to make such allowances as
we are accustomed to make for photographs and paintings, which are
more obviously conventions. In presenting stereo to public audi-
ences it would seem, therefore, a sound policy to avoid at least all
causes of distortion that are unnecessary, such as the exaggerated in-
terocular distance in the taking cameras. Those who have interocu-
lars representing departures one way or the other from the average
will, in general, have to suffer for it, although, if they were fussy, wide-
*About 6 by 8 feet.
Jan., 1936] STEREO PHOTOGRAPHY IN EDUCATION 13
eyed people could compensate for the difference to a considerable ex-
tent by sitting farther back and narrow-headed people by taking seats
in front. The size of the picture should be figured, in relation to the
average focal length of the taking camera, for the distance to a point
somewhat nearer the front than the middle of the block of seats. The
larger the picture and the greater its distance, the more persons could
see it with the minimum distortion of depth as well as of the other
two dimensions. Gigantism is no more to be feared, and no less,
than in the two-dimensional cinema. Stereo, in fact, provides the
only means of controlling scale, but this can be done under theater
conditions only at the expense of comfort. Care must be taken not
to permit a careless operator to separate the pictures by more than
interocular distance, for he might make the audience even sea-sick;
but a shift in the direction of convergence, if slight, would by most
persons be followed without great discomfort; and close-ups, which
should look smaller, would appear better if so treated. Registration
would have to be exact, for a vertical shift in either picture as com-
pared with the other would make fusion difficult and unstable and
produce strain.
The next question that will undoubtedly be raised is, "How com-
plicated is the apparatus that would be required?" The reply that is
most directly to the point is that the stereograms being shown in this
demonstration are being projected from single lantern slides of regu-
lation size by a single 500-watt projector of the usual type, burning,
for the moment, an over-voltaged 1000- watt motion picture projection
bulb and equipped in front of the lens with a stereo head, about 4
inches cube, containing the two polarizers corresponding to your spec-
tacles. The images, as may have been noticed, may separately be
slid at will to the side to provide for changes in convergence, or up and
and down to correct any vertical shift that may by chance be present.
The double camera with which the sculptures were photographed had
an interlocking converging and focusing device so that convergence
automatically followed focus. A still simpler camera is now being
designed, on the model of the projector. As regards the feasibility of
using similar apparatus for the motion picture, obviously the distinc-
tion is not a fundamental one. Whatever we have learned from the
work already done holds equally true for motion pictures : the greater
refinement of the equipment should lead to pictures of even better
quality than these.
What does one gain by the use of stereo? This question should be
14 C. KENNEDY [J. S. M. p. E.
put with the utmost seriousness at this time. The age-old problem
of presentation is so nearly solved that before we embark upon an
attempt to arrange the practical details of its use in various fields we
should stop to make sure what it is we expect from it. When the
Carnegie Corporation asked the writer to investigate for them the
possibilities of the use of stereo in the schools and colleges, this un-
doubtedly was the result of a purely spontaneous idea that occurred
to somebody in a quite unassuming way, but there is every evidence
that such an idea did not occur to them alone. From all sides there is
a sudden and incomprehensible interest in stereo, even before color is
developed to the point where we know exactly how to proceed with
that newest of all conquests of the reproduction of the visual world.
To the average person, stereo is synonymous with the third dimen-
sion. We must not forget that there are factors other than stereo
from which we get the effect of depth even in a single image upon the
screen — overlap, the shape of contours, the shape and position of re-
flections, light, shade, cast shadow and reflected light, atmospheric
effects, depth of focus, and the relative apparent movements of ob-
jects when they or the camera is in motion. It is a cumulative body
of effects that build up, even without binocular vision, a strong sen-
sation of depth, and are important in adding to its poignancy when a
picture is seen stereoscopically. But the stereoscopic sensation of
depth is something of a different order, which can best be described
by the word "reality," and there can be no hesitation in accepting the
popular verdict that that is its most striking aspect. Most persons
do not realize that binocular vision has other important implications
that improve even the photograph of an object that does not have
three dimensions. They would unquestionably believe me a quack if
they heard the report that I proposed to photograph paintings with
this system, or they would assume that I expected in that way to in-
fuse them with a false stereoscopic depth. But there is another prop-
erty of binocular vision that is even more exciting at the present mo-
ment because it has a direct application to color. It results from the
principle that in specular reflection the angle of incidence is equal to
the angle of reflection. For a given light-source the direction of the
surface of the object that would fulfill this condition must be different
for each eye, to an extent that increases as the eyes, always a constant
distance apart, approach nearer the object. Thus, the bright spot
that appears in one position upon the object for the left eye will be
seen in a different place by the right eye — displaced, that is, in a way
Jan., 1936] STEREO PHOTOGRAPHY IN EDUCATION 15
determined by the shape of the contiguous surface. To put it in an-
other way, the same unit of surface will appear bright for one eye and
darker for the other. This type of retinal disparity is the most
powerful phenomenon that gives meaning to reflection, or sheen or
luster, which in flat photographs has been the bane of the photog-
rapher. For the first time we have been able to make a bronze figure
look like bronze; one can see even that the surface has been waxed!
The significance this has for color is not self-evident, but those who
have been confronted with new color processes challenging the under-
standing and have looked at natural objects repeatedly through a
spectroscopic analyzer, will already be aware of the amazing extent
to which even the surfaces that we think of as matte are reflecting,
with its color unchanged, the light that falls upon them. You have
also had evidence of this in the films prepared by Mr. J. W. McFar-
lane,2 in which either wholly or partly, as the case may be, these re-
flections have been removed with a polarizing sheet. In this, as in
other physical sensations, we are not given to analyzing our impres-
sions; we are none the less aware of any failure in reproducing them.
The difference may be illustrated by describing an experience in mak-
ing a Dufay stereo color picture on two 5 X 7-inch films. I was
photographing a bronze head of Paul Robeson, by Epstein, and my
first shock came when I had to remove the bronze from a room with a
window opening out upon a lawn because of the vivid green reflections
from the grass all over the bronze. A room with gray burlap walls
proved a suitable place, but the two positives were very disappointing.
I blamed the film especially for its failure to record the black of the
polished marble base — it was a dirty gray. Discouraged, I had little
will to make the effort to arrange the films so that they could be
viewed in stereo, but, to my amazement, when I did, the base went
black! Then only did I realize how much reflected gray light had
been coming from it, which, in the single print mingled with the black
and became a part of it, but which, in the stereo, was recognized as a
mere reflection, and, in a sense, disregarded, as in life.
It follows that, even when we succeed in obtaining films that will
truthfully reproduce the colors of nature, they will not seem true until
we add binocular vision. Meanwhile, even imperfect color looks far
more reasonable in stereo. Pictures with gold backgrounds have
been the despair of critics who must lecture with an image upon the
screen, and even the yellow of the best color photograph is pasty look-
ing; but in these pictures we have gold! Experiments made with
16 C. KENNEDY [J. S. M. P. E.
paintings in tempera, and especially with those painted in oil, with
luminous glazes by the great Venetian masters, would indicate that
this phenomenon is still an important one in its less spectacular forms.
The future of stereo in the educational field is clear, then. It will be
invaluable in art, in botany, geology, mineralogy, in experimental
psychology, in medical schools, and wherever accurate reproduction
of the visual image is an axiomatic need. Furthermore, in this edu-
cational program the motion picture will have an undeniable place.
(During the presentation of Professor Kennedy's paper, spectacles fitted with polar-
izing filters were supplied to. the audience, with which to view the polarized anaglyphs
projected upon an aluminum screen by means of a lantern slide projector. More than
150 such spectacles were distributed among the audience and a large number of views
of objects of art, sculpture, etc., and outdoor scenes were seen in stereoscopic relief.}
REFERENCES
1 TUTTLE, F., AND McFARLANE, J. W. \ "Introduction to the Photographic Pos-
sibilities of Polarized Light," /. Soc. Mot. PicL Eng., XXV (July, 1935), No. 1,
p. 69.
2 MCFARLANE, J. W. : "Demonstration of Photography by Polarized Light,"
presented at the Fall, 1935, Meeting at Washington, D. C.; to be published in a
forthcoming issue of the JOURNAL.
DISCUSSION
MR. RICHARDSON: You said that the color would be different with reflected
light. Exactly what, with two-eyed vision, would be different?
MR. KENNEDY : In a single flat photograph the observer can not separate the
color of the reflected light from the basic color. Consequently, we accept the
mixture as the basic color, and the mixed color looks wrong. When we look at the
object itself we are able, in a sense, to disregard the color that we recognize as that
of the reflected light, and look through it, as it were, to the actual color of the sur-
face.
From the disparities in a stereogram we know which is the reflected color.
We have only to remember the appearance of the best color photograph of gold or
bronze, which are obvious and exaggerated examples of a lustrous material, to
realize that a color film of a painting can never reproduce the effect even of an
oil glaze unless the binocular phenomenon is taken into consideration.
MR. GAGE : I once took two pictures of a single object with the same camera
from points about twenty feet apart. I was able to arrange the prints so that a
railroad trestle about a mile away stood out with annoying prominence. It seems
to me when taking pictures of mountain scenery, it might be desirable to separate
the eyes by an exaggerated distance, and, whether the effect of depth could be
exaggerated or not, I believe the result would be very interesting.
During the demonstration here, I was noticing the effect that resulted when
only one eye was used and the polarizer rotated. With a few of the pictures, when
Jan., 1936 J STEREO PHOTOGRAPHY IN EDUCATION 17
they were very nearly in register, rotating the polarizing plate gave the appear-
ance of rotating the object somewhat.
MR. KENNEDY: If you are interested in "tricks," we have many of them. For
instance, I can determine with accuracy about what axis the apparent movement
of the three-dimensional image will pivot if, using both eyes, you move from side
to side across the room. Provided your eyes are acrobatic enough to follow, I can
also make the image come out into the room to meet you : it would then appear not
only to exist in space a very short distance from you, but it would appear smaller
as well. In comparison, a flat image of the same size and upon the same screen
would look ever so much larger and farther off.
MR. SHEA : How nearly equal in intensity must the illuminations received by
the two eyes be? How nearly equal were they here? I was under the impression
that there was a difference in intensity, and it detracted somewhat from the con-
trast that might have been present had the intensities been equal.
MR. KENNEDY: In the camera that I used for many of these pictures I used
lenses that were taken from an old stereo camera, and I found after making a num-
ber of exposures that the apertures were not precisely matched. The negatives
were given the same development, and I had to compensate for the difference in
density by a difference in printing time; obviously a correction of that kind can
at best be approximate.
MR. SHEA : In some of the last pictures shown I think the correction was com-
pletely made.
MR. KENNEDY: The degree to which it was successful was simply a question of
the skill of the printer. Of course, except for differences in the intensity of re-
flected lights, the two images should be of the same density, and would be when
using a properly constructed camera.
MR. JOY: In some colored pictures, there appears to be so much contrast be-
tween the colors that they seem too artificial. If depth were added to the picture
in the manner here demonstrated, would it tend to tone down such contrast and
make the colors appear more normal with respect to each other and the rest of the
picture?
MR. KENNEDY: The only effect stereoscopic reproduction has upon color is
that of which I have already spoken. In some cases a better balance might re-
sult between the colors, because some of the defects you describe might well be
explained by our failure to distinguish reflected lights from local color, especially
since the two would often be in a different key.
MR. CRABTREE: In commercial use would it be necessary to sterilize the
spectacles after each performance?
MR. KENNEDY: The glasses are water-proof and could be dipped into an anti-
septic.
REPORT OF THE STANDARDS COMMITTEE*
The recent misunderstanding concerning the 16-mm. sound-film
standards has emphasized the need for close cooperation with other
standardizing bodies, especially those in Europe. Various proposals
to that end have been made, among which were :
(1) That the Engineering Vice-President be requested to appoint several
European members of the SMPE to the Standards Committee, in order that they
may establish a direct liaison between this Committee and the European Com-
mittees.
(2) That copies of minutes of the meetings of this Committee be sent not only
to such foreign members, but also to the secretaries of other Societies interested in
motion picture technology and standardization both here and abroad, and to a
selected list of persons who might be expected to offer criticisms or suggestions.
Thus the other standardizing groups would be acquainted with the
plans and ideas of this Committee before they have become fully
crystallized, and would have the advantage of discussing and com-
paring our plans with their own before taking final steps toward
standardization. It is, furthermore, hoped that if this Committee
takes the initiative, other groups will follow suit ; and we may thus be
able to consider their tentative standards before they have gone too
far for reconsideration.
During his recent trip to Paris to discuss the 16-mm. sound-film
standards, Mr. G. Friedl received a number of criticisms of our Stand-
ards Booklet which indicated that although the Booklet might be
quite clear to American engineers, it could be made much clearer and
more definite for those whose practices and languages differed to any
extent. Mr. Friedl has gone over the Booklet in detail and has
pointed out inconsistencies in the mode of presentation which the
Committee will endeavor to clarify in the next publication.
The items under discussion at the present time are as follows :
Sprockets.- — Sub-committees, appointed for the purpose, report
that the manufacturers of camera and sound sprockets do not believe
that these sprockets are as yet amenable to standardization. As most
of the Committee was in agreement, the matter has been dropped.
* Presented at the Fall, 1935, Meeting at Washington, B.C.
18
REPORT OF STANDARDS COMMITTEE 19
Screen Brightness. — The general problem of screen brightness has
long been before the Standards Committee. The excellent work of
the Projection Screen Brightness Committee under the chairmanship
of C. Tuttle makes it appear that a practical solution of the problem
is in sight.
Photoelectric Cell Specifications. — The specifications proposed by the
British Standards Institution for photoelectric cells are under con-
sideration by the Sound Committee, and we are awaiting their report.
8-Mm. Sound Film. — Dimensional specifications have been sub-
mitted for the standardization of 8-mm. sound film. Since, appar-
ently, no such film has yet been produced commercially, it seems too
early to attempt standardization. It is felt, however, that the time
to begin work on standards is before too many different forms of ap-
paratus appear upon the market.
16-Mm. Sound Test-Film. — The production of a 16-mm. sound test-
film, similar to the SMPE standard 35-mm. sound test film, is under
way. The plan is to distort the frequency- volume curve of the nega-
tive so that the response curve of the positive will be nearly flat up to
5000 cycles.
2000- Ft. Reels. — The Standards Committee is preparing to act as
soon as possible upon the recommendations of the Projection Practice
and Exchange Practice Committees with regard to adopting the
2000-ft. reel proposed recently for positive film by the Academy of
Motion Picture Arts and Sciences.
Standard Densities for Calibrating Sensitometric Instruments. — A re-
quest has been received from several of the laboratories that standard
densities be made available for calibrating densitometers. A sub-
committee is investigating this problem.
16-Mm. Sound Lead. — The German standard for the lead of the
sound over the picture in 16-mm. sound film is 27 frames. The
SMPE standard is 25 frames. A compromise proposal of 26 frames
was made at the Paris Congress in July. The Standards Committee
is at present in favor of agreeing to the proposal and changing the
SMPE standard to 26 frames, but it was deemed advisable first to
consult the various equipment and film manufacturers before formally
adopting the change.
Definition of Safety Film. — A sub-committee is being appointed for
the purpose of looking into the specifications of safety film stock, and
the desirability of changing our definition to agree with that proposed
at the International Film Congress.
20 REPORT OF STANDARDS COMMITTEE
E. K. CARVER, Chairman
J. A. DUBRAY, Vice- Chairman
M. C. BATSEL R C. HUBBARD H. RUBIN
W. H. CARSON E. HUSE O. SANDVIK
A. C. DOWNES C. L. LOOTENS H. B. SANTEE
P. H. EVANS K. F. MORGAN J. L. SPENCE
R. E. FARNHAM N. F. OAKLEY H. M. STOLLER
C. L. FARRAND G. F. RACKETT R. C. WILLMAN
H. GRIFFIN W. B. RAYTON A. WISE
C. N. REIFSTECK
DISCUSSION
MR. MITCHELL: What, if anything, is being done about adopting the standard
35-mm. positive perforations universally? It is necessary again to call attention
to the problem of printing positive stock from a negative, the perforation height of
which differs by 0.005 inch. The matter hast>een called to our attention periodi-
cally, and it is almost impossible to get the high-quality result we require today
unless it is straightened out. I suggest that further consideration be given to the
possibility of using positive film having the same height of perforation as the nega-
tive. I am sure you will find that such film can be used in existing projectors
satisfactorily.
MR. CARVER: Do I understand that you recommend decreasing the height of
the positive perforation to match that of the negative? The standard adopted by
the Society is that both the negative and the positive perforations be the same as
the present positive perforation. So far as formal action goes, we have done all
that we can do. The rest is a question of propaganda. It is very difficult for us
to know just how to induce every one to change. The film is available, according
to the standard ; all that has to be done is to order it ; but we can not make people
order the standard film if they choose to order the other.
MR. MITCHELL : That is exactly the point I make : a standard has been recom-
mended that does not seem to be acceptable — they have so much old negative
that they can not treat it ; the positive film is more transitory. It might be worth
going into the matter further to see whether the recommendation should not be
changed to suit the existing conditions rather than the ideal.
MR. CARVER: That point has been studied carefully, and we have found no
instances of apparatus in which negative film that already exists will not work
satisfactorily in conjunction with the positive film. As a matter of fact, positive
film will work all right in the camera without change, at least, in so far as we have
been able to find out. Most cameramen would probably like to have the posi-
tioning pins changed were they to use the film with the larger perforations. One
difficulty (I am sure it is not the only one) with the old type of negative perfora-
tion is the tolerance in the present sound equipment. The sound recorders will
not work properly with the narrow perforation if shrinkage is greater than, I
believe, 0.36 per cent. With the positive perforation, however, the tolerance is
considerably greater, and that alone seems to be sufficient justification for insist-
ing upon the positive type of perforation, as we have done.
REPORT OF THE SOUND COMMITTEE*
As noted in the Spring report, 1 the Sound Committee has addressed
itself to four main projects. Upon the first of these, namely, that of
establishing Primary and Secondary Frequency Reference Standards,
considerable work has been done, principally because the Committee
regards this project the most important, and for that reason concen-
trated its attention upon it. This report, therefore, will be restricted
to that phase of the Committee's work.
As will be recalled, the first step in the project was to establish and
calibrate prints that would serve as Primary and Secondary Fre-
quency Reference Standards. That has been done, and the follow-
ing instructions concerning their use have been prepared. The data
indicate that an accuracy of =»=0.5 db. may be achieved in direct com-
parisons between two films, and that results are reproducible at in-
tervals to an even higher degree of accuracy.
FREQUENCY REFERENCE STANDARD OF THE SOUND COMMITTEE
Because of the inability of various organizations to make absolute
measurements of the output from a given sample of sound record
that would check, the Sound Committee decided to follow the prece-
dent set by the Bureau of Standards in standardizing units of
distance, weight, resistance, etc., and has adopted a Reference
Standard as a datum plane or bench-mark, to which all other
frequency-film measurements can be referred. To this end, a certain
film now in the hands of the Chairman of the Committee was
selected as a Reference Standard, and has been marked Primary
Frequency Reference Standard VW, Print No. 1, Property of the SMPE
Sound Committee.
Although an effort was made to make the Primary Standard as
nearly as possible a constant-output film, the various organizations
that have measured the film do not agree as to its characteristic; nor
is it important for our purposes that we know what it is. The mea-
surements that have been made are merely for the purpose of deter-
* Presented at the Fall, 1935, Meeting at Washington, D. C.
21
22
REPORT OF SOUND COMMITTEE [J. S. M. P. E.
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Jan., 1936]
REPORT OF SOUND COMMITTEE
23
mining the variations with age and hence the stability of the film as a
Reference Standard. Information as to these variations will be made
available from time to time, but not as to the characteristic.
As in the case of Reference Standards of weights and measures, it is
neither desirable nor physically possible for every one to have direct
TABLE II
Data Showing Reliability of SMPE Secondary Frequency Reference Standard as a
True Standard of Reference
Frequency
A
B
C
D
30
-0.5
-0.3
0.0
. . .
50
0.0
+0.4
-0.2
0.0
100
-0.5
-0.3
+0.2
-0.2
250
-0.5
-0.3
0.0
.
500
-0.2
-0.1
-0.4
. . .
1,000
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
2,000
+0.3
+0.9
+0.5
+0.3
3,000
+ 1.5
+ 1-7
+1.5
+1.5
4,000
+3.8
+4.0
+3.8
+3.6
5,000
+2.5
+2.7
+2.7
+2.7
6,000
+2.5
+2.5
+1.7
+2.0
7,000
+1.5
+1.5
+0.5
+0.7
8,000
+2.0
+2.2
+ 1.3
+0.3
9,000
+ 1.5
+2.2
+ 1.0
+ 1.0
10,000
+ 1.0
+1.7
+1.0
Direct comparison with Primary Standard:
(A) On System No. 1, July 12th.
(B) On System No. 1, July 15th.
(C) On System No. 2, Aug. 8th.
Comparison with Primary Standard through intermediary test-film:
(Z>) Secondary Standard on System No. 2, Aug. 8th;
Test-film on System No. 1, July 12th; direct comparison with Primary
Standard;
Deviation computed from these two runs. Frequencies omitted from
column D were not included in the test-film.
All readings are in db., as read on a General Radio general-purpose level indica-
tor and are deviations from the Primary Reference Standard (or No. 1 Print).
access to the Primary Standard. The Sound Committee has, there-
fore, followed the procedure established in the case of many other
Reference Standards, of employing Secondary Reference Standards.
Consequently, additional prints were made of the same frequency
negative and were marked Secondary Frequency Reference Standard
VW, Print No , Property of the SMPE Sound Committee. Each of
24 REPORT OF SOUND COMMITTEE [J. S. M. p. E.
the Secondary Standards has been calibrated in terms of the Primary
Standard, and the deviations noted upon a label pasted inside the
cover of the film can. These prints are the property of the Sound
Committee, and may be borrowed by any interested organization for
the purpose of calibrating privately owned Reference Standards or
test-films. In order to minimize the changes with use in these
Secondary Reference Standards, it is of great importance that they
be used as infrequently as possible. The Sound Committee will
check the calibration of the Secondary Standards from time to time,
as experience indicates the necessity of so doing.
The motive in establishing this Reference Standard has been to
provide for the industry a tool that could be used for the study of spe-
cific problems. Detailed instructions will be prepared and issued by
the Sound Committee from time to time on the exact procedure to be
followed in compiling the data for such studies.
In order to furnish an idea of the relative uniformity of the Secon-
dary Standards, Table I shows the calibration of each Secondary print
in terms of the No. 1 Print, or Primary Reference Standard. Table II
shows the consistency of measurements made at various times and
with various machines, both by direct comparison and through an
intermediate film or test-film. These data indicate that in direct
comparisons an accuracy of ±0.5 db. may be expected; and that
when an intermediate film is used, this accuracy will not be less ex-
cept at the higher frequencies.
CALIBRATION OF PRIVATELY OWNED TEST-FILM
Probably the first step for each interested organization of the indus-
try is to provide itself with a reliable test-film. For accuracy of re-
sults and ease of manipulation it is desirable that the film have an
approximately constant output for all frequencies, although that is
not absolutely necessary if the film is calibrated in terms of the Sound
Committee's Primary Standard by means of a Secondary Reference
Standard. When recording or obtaining a frequency test-film, care
should be taken to include the frequencies that have been adopted by
the Committee as being representative of the voice-frequency range,
namely, 30, 50, 100, 250, 500, 1000, and every thousand up to and in-
cluding 10,000 cps. This will permit the Sound Committee to corre-
late the data of the various organizations in the problems it has set
out to solve.
When a frequency film has been obtained that appears to be satis-
Jan., 1936 J REPORT OF SOUND COMMITTEE 25
factory, it should be run upon a convenient reproducing machine and
system (the better the machine and system the more reliable the re-
sults : preferably a machine without sprocket teeth) , and the output
at the various frequencies measured by a volume indicator or other
suitable means. Repeat the run four or five times ; then if the results
check within a few tenths of a decibel, immediately run the Secondary
Reference Standard once, without making any alterations in the sys-
tem, and note the output at the various frequencies.
Next, to determine the deviation of the test-film at any frequency,
take the average of the output readings of the film at that frequency
and note the deviation between this average reading and the output
reading of the Secondary Frequency Reference Standard. If the
output of the film at that frequency is greater than that of the Secon-
dary Standard, the deviation is plus; if less, the deviation is minus.
Pasted inside the can in which the Secondary Frequency Reference
Standard is received will be found a table showing the deviation of the
Secondary Standard from the Primary Standard at each frequency.
Adding this value algebraically to the deviation between the test-
film and the Secondary Reference Standard will then furnish the
deviation of the test-film from the Primary Reference Standard.
As an example :
If the test-film at 250 cps. gives an output of +2.0 db.
And the Secondary Reference Standard under the same conditions and
at the same frequency gives an output of +1.0 db.
Then the deviation of the test-film from the Secondary Reference
Standard would be +1.0 db.
If the deviation for the Secondary Reference Standard as given in the
table should be — 2.0 db.
Then the deviation of the test-film from the Primary Reference
Standard would be — 1.0 db.
or, in other words, the output of the privately owned test-film would
be 1.0 db. less than that of the Primary Reference Standard at 250
cps. if both were played under identical conditions.
MEASUREMENT OF RECORDING FREQUENCY CHARACTERISTIC
One of the most important projects before the Sound Committee
is that of achieving a greater uniformity in the frequency characteris-
tic of sound records made in the various studios,1 and as a first step in
this project, the Committee desires to obtain information concerning
the recording frequency characteristic now in use at those studios
up to and including the release print. In order that these data may
26 REPORT OF SOUND COMMITTEE [J. S. M. p. E.
•
be directly comparable, the Committee wishes to have the results
expressed in terms of the Primary Frequency Reference Standard;
and in order to increase the accuracy of the results, it is desirable
that the same method be used by every one in obtaining the data.
The Sound Committee recommends that the regular recording cir-
cuit as used at the present time, complete in every detail (including
equalizer, etc.) from the microphone to the recording machine, be set
up as for a regular ' ' take. ' ' Replace the microphone unit by a resistor
of the same value, and in series with it apply the standard frequencies
(30, 50, 100, 250, 500, 1000, and every thousand up to and including
10,000 cps.) at a constant level, as read on a General Radio level
indicator or any other level indicating device that shows no fre-
quency discrimination. The input level should be so adjusted that
all potentiometers and gain-controlling devices in the circuit shall be
at normal setting and give a normal recording level on the film.
Record about fifteen feet of film at each frequency, making certain
that the film is up to speed when doing so.
The film should be processed in accordance with usual production
practice (preferably attached in the developing machine to produc-
tion negative) and a print made in accordance with the regular pro-
duction procedure. If it is the normal practice of the studio to use
the original negative in making release prints this test print should
be measured as indicated below. If, on the other hand, it is the
normal practice of the studio to re-record all sound upon a new
release negative, the test print should be re-recorded, using the
same machines, circuits, and equalizers as are used for regular
production. There-recorded negative should be given production
development and printing, and the print made from this re-recorded
negative should be used in making the measurements requested. In
view of the fact that, in general, both original and re-recorded nega-
tives are cut into the release negative, it is requested that data on
both processes be submitted. Furthermore, in view of the fact that
most studios use different equalization for dialog and music, it is
requested that separate data on these two characteristics be
submitted.
The print should be run four or five times upon the best recording
equipment available, and the output measured at each frequency.
Then, without making any changes in the reproducing equipment,
run the privately owned test-film (or borrow a Secondary Standard
from the Sound Committee), which has already been calibrated in
Jan., 1936]
REPORT OF SOUND COMMITTEE
27
terms of the SMPE Primary Standard, and note again the readings
at the various frequencies.
To determine the deviation of the recording characteristic from
that of the privately owned test-film at any frequency, subtract the
output read on the test-film from the average of the output readings
on the specially recorded film, taking particular notice of the algebraic
sign. That is, if the newly recorded film gives an output at any
frequency greater than that of the test-film, the deviation is plus; if
the output is less, the deviation is minus.
Next, refer to the calibration of the test-film (or Secondary Stand-
ard) in terms of the SMPE Primary Standard; and for every fre-
quency add the deviation of the test-film from the SMPE Primary
Standard to the deviation of the newly recorded film from the test-
film. These are the data desired by the Sound Committee. As an
example :
At 500 cycles, the newly recorded film gives an average output reading of -f-2 db.
The test-film gives an output reading under similar conditions of +1 db.
Therefore, the deviation of the newly recorded film from the test-film is -f-1 db.
If the previous calibration of the test-film showed, at this frequency, a
deviation from the SMPE Primary Standard of — 3 db.
Then the recording characteristic of the system deviates from the SMPE
Primary Standard by — 2 db.
M. C. BATSEL
R. M. EVANS
L. G. GRIGNON
E. H. HANSEN
J. P. LIVADARY
P. H. EVANS, Chairman
C. DREHER, Vice- Chairman
W. C. MILLER
K. F. MORGAN
W. A. MUELLER
L. L. RYDER
O. SANDVIK
E. I. SPONABLE
R. O. STROCK
S. K. WOLF
W. WOLF
REFERENCE
1 Report of the Sound Committee. /. Soc.
No. 4, p. 353.
Mot P*rt En?., XXV (Oct., 1935),
PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS*
H. G. TASKER
In the motion pictures which you have just witnessed is exemplified
the keynote of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers from the day
of its inception, nearly twenty years ago, until today as we open this
Thirty-Eighth Convention of the Society. Nor will the keynote change
as the Society continues down the years in service to the industry
and to its membership, for that keynote is "Progress." Likewise
it is the theme of my message to the Society this morning.
Although it is the common practice to trace the course of progress
from some small and nearly forgotten beginning through periods of
struggle to present accomplishment, and then to peer eagerly into the
misty future to discern the progress yet to come, I should like to
reverse the order and dip first into the future, after which we may,
with some amusement, look to the present and the past to discover the
heredity of this yet unborn future. So, ignoring the fast closing record
of 1935, let us turn the pages of the book of time to the year 1940 and,
carefully adjusting our spectacles, try to read the half-formed char-
acters that are written there.
Without much difficulty I discern that the lusty youngster,
"Sound," whose timely, or untimely, arrival in 1926 so thoroughly
upset the motion picture family and whose cries of babyhood and
shouts of youth both attracted and distracted theater patrons, has
at last come of age and now exhibits the grace and ease of early man-
hood, seemingly a gentleman to the manner born. Not only has the
frequency characteristic broadened, until it now, with smoothness
and reality, embraces a range of thirty to ten thousand cycles, but
also the disquieting and disillusioning background noises have been
materially suppressed or controlled until the volume range of expres-
sion is comparable with that of the orginal sources. Moreover, a
remarkable degree of uniformity has been achieved from theater to
theater and from studio to studio, so that no longer is the attainable
range of variation in frequency characteristics and in volume con-
*Presented at the Fall, 1935, Meeting at Washington, D. C.
28
PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS 29
sumed in the inaccuracies of the art but is now available for the true
rendition of the art of director and actor. I learn also that the sound
now emanates from whatever portion of the motion picture screen
is most appropriate to the scene, through the full development of
audio perspective.
In the realm of photography even more startling changes have
taken place. Not only has the fine artistry of 1935 been further ad-
vanced by the aid of better lenses and much finer-grained film emul-
sion, but those very elements have made possible a startling new
effect, for the picture now stands out in full stereoscopic relief, yet
sharp in all details. I see, too, that the art of process photography,
which as early as 1935 had almost completely released the cinema
from the fetters of time and space, has kept pace with the develop-
ment of stereoscopic photography and has begun to overcome the
seemingly insurmountable obstacles presented by process photog-
raphy in three dimensions. I find that color, also, has at last attained
its majority, and now clothes the picture like the raiment of a gentle-
man, neither shabbily nor blatantly but in such excellent taste and
perfection of detail as to be almost inconspicuous.
These developments in sound and picture, it seems, have been
accompanied and accelerated by technical advances in every branch
of the science of motion picture making, but I am glad to say that prog-
ress is not confined to technical matters. With a great deal of
pleasure I learn that the technical advances have been accompanied
by substantial improvements in the human relations of the motion
picture industry, especially as they affect the engineer. Through the
aid of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers and other constructive
agencies there has come about a much more sympathetic understand-
ing, upon the part of the engineer, of the problems that beset the
management and the artistic side of the industry, and because of
this better understanding the engineer has bent his efforts still more
effectively to the solution of the industry's problems. On the other
hand, and in large measure through the same agencies, there has come
about, upon the part of the managements, a better realization of the
importance of engineering in this most scientific and yet most artistic
of all industries. The year 1940 finds the very best of engineering
brains no longer hectically, but now happily, engaged in the solution
of motion picture problems.
Yet, perhaps, I may have misread in part this record of the year
1940. Certainly no millennium has as yet arrived, and I find recorded
30 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS [J. S. M. p. E.
that the progress in human relations within the industry, though
great, still leaves much to be done ; that auditory perspective is too
new a tool to have realized its full possibilities in the hands of the
director and the artist; and that stereoscopic cinematography is like-
wise in its infancy, and though technically sound, is none the less
the cause of much embarrassment to those who are trying to realize
its possibilities as screen entertainment. At the bottom of the page
I find this footnote: "The motion picture industry, despite having
made tremendous technical advances within the last half decade,
finds itself facing a still larger number of even more difficult techni-
cal problems than those that it faced in 1935."
Returning now to this 21st day of October, 1935, I need scarcely
discuss the status of the motion picture science of today, for you are
all quite familiar with it, or will be, when the technical sessions of
this Convention draw to a close. You are aware, also, of the fact that
the predictions that I have just made are no idle dreams; in every
case, whether to result in success or in failure, the fundamental re-
searches required are already in progress.
I am anxious, however, that you should realize that your Society,
organized in 1916 "for the advancement in the theory and practice
of motion picture engineering and the allied arts and sciences," has
been, is today, and will still be in 1940, one of the great stimulating
factors in the progress of the motion picture. It is most fitting,
therefore, that this Society should now inaugurate an additional
measure for stimulating the development of the art, comprising a
Progress Medal which is to be awarded annually to some individual
in recognition of an invention, research, or development which shall
have resulted in a significant advance in the development of motion
picture technology.
A most unusual design for the proposed Progress Medal was exe-
cuted by Mr. Alexander Murray of the Eastman Kodak Company,
approved by the Board of Governors, and generously donated by
Mr. Murray to the Society. Dies were made, and the medal struck;
a Progress Award Committee was appointed, which, after months of
careful study, selected the first recipient of the medal; and on the
occasion of the Semi-Annual Banquet next Wednesday evening the
first award of the Progress Medal will be made.*
*The award was made to Dr. E. C. Wente: See "Proceedings of the Semi-
Annual Banquet at Washington, D. C.," in the December, 1935, issue, p.467.
Jan., 1936] PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS 31
Now the design of this medal (Fig. 1 ) is to my mind most uniquely
symbolic of progress in the cinema. Referring to the right-hand
side, the central series of horizontal panels afford opportunity to
designate the name of the medalist and the purpose of the Award.
They also carry a number of little triangular elevations, which many
of you will recognize at once as representing bromide crystals. Above
the inscription appears an H&D curve, symbolic of the classical
researches of Hurter and Driffield, to whom the industry is indebted
for clarifying the photographic basis of successful motion picture
photography, both of sound and of scene. In curved panels to the
left and the right appear sine waves, symbolic both of sound and
light, which it is our modern purpose to imprison and later release
FIG. 1. The Progress Medal, showing on its obverse Marey's photo-
graphic images of a bird in successive phases of flight.
for the enjoyment of the world- wide audience. An outermost circular
panel bears the name of the Society.
Turning to the left-hand view, we find that the central design
is a replica of the official emblem of the Society, which, as you know,
has its own origin in the motion picture reel. Above and around this
emblem are embossed the words "For Progress," and below are laurel
branches, symbolic of achievement.
Surrounding the central portion, a circle of film perforations forms
a decorative motif which cooperates symbolically with what, to my
mind, is the most outstanding feature of the entire design. Mr.
Murray drew his inspiration for this portion of the design from the
earliest known bit of cinematography, the work of the early French
scientist, Eugene Marey, and while many of you may be familiar
32
PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS
[J. S. M. P. E.
with Marey's work, there are doubtless many others who, like
myself, would find it very interesting to delve into this nearly for-
gotten origin of the motion picture.
In his own day (1886), even as now, Marey was credited with being
one of the originators of cinematography. In the translator's note
introducing an English version of Marey's work on Movement, we
find these remarks :
"Instantaneous photography, especially that branch of it known as 'chrono-
photography' has already won for itself a recognized position among the methods
of scientific research, and in the near future it is probable that it will be even more
generally appreciated. Marey and Muybridge must undoubtedly be regarded
as two pioneers of the method. ..."
Marey himself was no seeker of laurels, and credits the actual
conception of chronophotography to another. As an introduction to
his chronophotographic method, Marey says :
"A Mr. Janssen was the first who
. . .thought of taking by automatic
means a series of photographic im-
ages to represent the successive
phases of a phenomenon. The
honor is due to him of having in-
augurated what is nowadays called
chronophotography upon a moving
plate. It was proposed to take a
series of photographs of the planet
Venus as it passed across the sun's
disk, and for this purpose our
learned colleague constructed his
astronomical revolver. This in-
strument contained a circular sen-
sitized plate, which at stated inter-
vals rotated through a small angle,
and at each turn received a new im-
pression upon a fresh portion of the
plate.
FIG. 2. Photographs of the planet
Venus crossing the sun's disk, taken by
Janssen with his "astronomical revolver."
"The photograph (Fig. 2) which was obtained by this means consisted of a
series of images arranged in a circular fashion. Each image represented a new
position of the planet during the period of transit, and each was separated from
its neighbor by an interval of seventy seconds."
Although this interval between exposures was by no means com-
parable to the rapidity required for a photographic representation of
the motions of every-day life, it appears that Mr. Janssen at least
Jan., 1936 J PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS 33
made the suggestion of applying a photographic series to the study of
animal locomotion. He states:
"A series of photographs of any particular movement, comprising the entire
cycle of events, would be a most valuable means of elucidating the mechanism in-
volved. In view of our present ignorance on the subject, one could imagine the
interest of possessing a series of photographs representing the successive positions
of a bird's wing during the act of flight. The principal difficulty would arise from
the sluggishness of our photographic plates, for images of this kind require the
very shortest exposure. But, doubtless, science will overcome difficulties of this
kind."
It should be remembered, of course, that the representation of mo-
tion through animation, similar to that still employed by Walt Disney
in the exceedingly popular Mickey Mouse and Silly Symphony car-
toons, had preceded by some years the work of Janssen and of Marey.
Janssen undertook to point out that his proposal, in contrast to the
synthetic representation of motion, would provide an analytical study
of movement.
Nevertheless, the photographic revolver by Janssen was not to be
the first device applied to chronophotographic studies of motion.
It remained for Mr. Muybridge, of San Francisco, to discover, by
means of a method rather different from that of Janssen 's, the analysis
of equine locomotion, as well as that of man and various other animals.
In Muybridge's method a number of cameras were drawn up alongside
a race-track. Electric wires, stretched across the track at intervals,
communicated with electromagnets, each of which held the shutter
of one of the cameras tightly closed. The horse, in following the track,
broke the wires one after the other, and brought about the instan-
taneous opening of each corresponding shutter. Each exposure
allowed a photograph of the animal, in one or the other of its positions,
to appear upon the plate. The resulting series of stills showing the
successive phases of motion was admirably suited to this scientist's
purpose, but the apparatus, as was soon discovered, was of little use
for studying movements of birds.
Now birds, as it happened, were a subject that greatly interested
Mr. Marey, and after studying, with meager results, some random
photographs of birds in flight made for him by Mr. Muybridge, Marey
determined to invent an apparatus,
"based upon the same principles as that of Mr. Janssen's, but capable of giving a
series of photographs at very short intervals of time (Viz of a second instead of the
70 seconds which separated the photographs of Janssen's astronomical revolver)
so as to procure the successive phases of movements of the wings."
34
PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS
[J. S. M. P. E.
This instrument, gun-like in form, made it possible to follow the
flight of a bird by aiming at the object in the manner of Fig. 3 (a).
Ignoring for the moment the mental reactions of the artist as
revealed by the fantastic appearance of the gun-strap, the general
arrangement of the "gun" may be observed in Fig. 3(6). The exten-
sible "barrel" contains the photographic lens, and is graduated for
ease in focusing. The circular breech contains the photographic
plate, the rotating shutter, and the clockwork mechanism. In the
FIG. 3. (a) Marey's design of the "photographic gun";
(b) general arrangement of the "gun," showing the extensible "bar-
rel" containing the lens; (c) the 12- windowed aperture plate
against which the photographic plate was pressed, and some of the
mechanism for rotating the plate intermittently.
interior view, Fig. 3(c), is shown the twelve- windowed aperture
plate against which the photographic plate is pressed and some of
the mechanism by which the plate is rotated in true intermittent
fashion. In the words of the author:
"The moment the trigger was pulled, the sensitized plate received an impres
sion, then moved on to receive another, and so on, but always stopping each time
that the opening of the shutter allowed the light to fall upon the plate."
Jan., 1936]
PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS
35
In Fig. 4 we see the result, and in it the inspiration for Mr. Alex-
ander Murray's design of the Progress Medal. Made upon a gelatin
plate sensitized with bromide of silver, the successive photographs
of a flying gull are shown at intervals of Vi2 second. Says Marey:
"These little images, when enlarged by projection, furnish curious details with
respect to the position of the wings and the torsion of the remiges by the resistance
of the air, but in the majority of cases the images are too small to stand enlarge-
ment."
This most fascinating piece of research and invention was accom-
plished with but one end in view, the scientific study of animate
movement, and the inventor had
no dream of the vast amusement
industry that would some day
grow out of his simple invention.
It seems always thus. Scientists
devise and discover for purely
scientific ends, while others adapt
to commerce or amusement the
principles and devices that they
have brought forth.
In order to appreciate Marey 's
contributions fully, we must add
one further word regarding his
subsequent work. He soon real-
ized the limitations of his ingeni-
ous apparatus and, as he stated:
FIG. 4. Marey's bird in motion,
the inspiration for the design of the
SMPE Progress Medal.
"The weak point of the photographic gun was principally that the images were
taken upon a glass plate, the weight of which was exceedingly great. The inertia
of such a mass, which continually had to be set in motion and brought to rest, neces-
sarily limited the number of images. The maximum was 12 in the second, and
these had to be very small, or else they would have required a disk of larger sur-
face, and consequently of too large a mass.
"These difficulties may be overcome by substituting for the glass disk a continu-
ous film very slightly coated with gelatin and bromide of silver. This film can be
made to pass automatically, with a rectilinear movement, across the focus of the
lens, come to rest at each period of exposure, and again advance with a jerk. A
series of photographs of fair size can be taken in this way. The size we chose was
9 centimeters square, exactly the right size to fit the enlarging camera by which
they could be magnified to convenient proportions. As the continuous film
might be several meters in length, the number of photographs that could be taken
was practically unlimited."
36
PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS
[J. S. M. P. E.
"The necessary elements for taking successive images upon a continuous film
are united in the apparatus shown in Fig. 5. The apparatus has a special com-
partment, the photographic chamber, in which the sensitized film is carried. To
FIG. 5.
Marey's apparatus for taking successive images
upon a continuous film.
admit light there is provided an apertured admission shutter. At each illumina-
tion the light passes through the aperture, and forms an image upon the moving
film, which has previously been brought into focus. The film unrolls itself by a
series of intermittent movements, by means of a special mechanical arrangement
which enables it to pass from one bobbin to another."
FIG. 6. Photographs taken by Marey to show that
it was necessary to arrest the motion of the image dur-
ing exposure: (left) film in motion during exposure;
(right) film at rest during exposure.
Not only did Marey clearly understand the necessity for arresting
the motion of the photographic surface during an exposure, but he
even engaged successfully in arguments with other scientists who
felt this complication to be unnecessary. Said Marey :
Jan., 1936] PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS 37
"Some people have thought that by using such a complicated apparatus as that
which we have employed for arresting the movement of the film we have given
ourselves unnecessary trouble, and it has been said that for very short exposures
the movement of the film might be neglected. It would be easy to prove by cal-
culation that during the period of the exposure, say, 1/1000 part of a second, the
film would move enough to deprive the photographs of that clearness upon which
their value depends. But it is simpler and perhaps more convincing to show by an
experiment that without these periods of arrest good images are not to be ob-
tained. By alternately suppressing and inducing an arrest of the film at the
moment of exposure, we obtained a series of images which were alternately blurred
and distinct.
"Two such consecutive images are shown (Fig. 6). The different degree of
definition is so obvious that it is useless to insist further upon the necessity of ar-
resting the film during the period of exposure."
After this brief review of his remarkable work I am prompted to
propose that we bestow upon Eugene Marey, long deceased, the
well earned title of "Father of the Motion Picture." I, for one, am
doubly grateful to Mr. Alexander Murray, first, for giving to the Society
a most beautiful and symbolic design for the Progress Medal, and,
second, for affording us frequent occasion to remember the outstand-
ing work of a pioneer upon whose accomplishments our very
presence here depends.
CONTINUOUS PHOTOGRAPHIC PROCESSING
H. D. HINELINE**
Summary. — -The trend of development of continuous photographic processing,
from the beginning of the art to the more recent elaborations of equipment, is discussed
from the point of view of the patents issued from 1886 on. An appendix contains a
list of patents describing minor improvements and refinements in processing equipment.
When an industry completes the stage of preliminary experiment
and development, it is confronted with the problems that are inherent
in quantity production. The photographic industry is no exception
in this respect, and very early in photographic history the require-
ment for quantity methods of production appeared. But, as is usually
the case in the photographic field, relatively little information has
been published in regard to commercial methods of handling and
finishing sensitive materials in large quantities and by continuous
processing methods, and what little published information there is
is largely to be found in patents. The most important field of continu-
ous photographic processing is, of course, that of the motion picture
industry, and it is the motion picture laboratories that have devel-
oped apparatus and methods for the continuous processing of pho-
tographic materials to the highest stage.
But continuous photographic processing antedates the motion
picture by many years. The first patent dealing with continuous
photographic processing is that of John Urie, British Patent No.
16,237, of 1886. The patent is very interesting, indeed, for it contains
the germ from which grew practically all the subsequent systems of
continuous photographic processing. Urie dealt with bromide paper
only, particularly picture postcards printed automatically upon a roll
of paper. He fed the exposed strip of bromide paper from a reel
into a tall narrow tank of developer, and under rolls carried upon
movable frames. The frames each carried three rollers, so that
* Presented at the Fall, 1935, Meeting at Washington, D. C.
** New York, N. Y.
38
CONTINUOUS PROCESSING 39
the film made four passes through the height of the tank; and the
frames could be raised and lowered to control the depth of im-
mersion and thereby control the length of time of development.
Two tanks of developer are shown, each equipped with a drain valve,
and a supply storage tank. From the developer tanks the paper was
drawn over a constant-speed traversing roll by friction and dropped
into a tank of rinse water, fresh rinse water being continuously supplied
and allowed to overflow. From the rinse water tank the strip of
prints was carried to two tanks of fixing bath, similar in form to the
developer tank and similarly equipped with rolls, racks, and drain
and supply storage tanks. From the fixing bath, the strip was drawn
over another feeding roll and dropped into a tank of wash water from
which it was later withdrawn and rolled up wet upon a reel. Urie
does not show a drier. He does show and describe his entire system
as being mounted in a large tray to prevent undue spillage of solution.
He shows and stresses constant speed of travel of the material, and
shows and stresses variation of immersion time in the solution. He
speaks of return of the solution from a drip tank to the storage tank
for re-use. The only important point Urie missed was that of tempera-
ture control, but he did not need to control his temperature accurately,
because he was able to follow the development by inspection and regu-
late the development time accordingly.
line's patent was followed eight years later by U. S. Patent No.
525,849, issued September 11, 1894, to E. F. Macusick, who also
was dealing with photographic paper rather than with cine* film. But
the side view of his machine, as shown in his patent, is hardly distin-
guishable from a diagrammatic side view of some of the more success-
ful modern cine developing outfits. He drew his printed paper from
a reel and passed it in succession through a series of tanks of solution,
feeding and conveying rolls being provided over the partitions between
successive tanks. He also provided carrier cords on the edges of the
paper, as has since been suggested and patented for cine* film.
Not alone was the need felt for quantity production in the finishing
end of the photographic field, but also in the plants for the manu-
facture of sensitive material. This is shown by Patent No. 358,848,
issued to George Eastman (and another) for a machine for coating
wide strips of nitrocellulose film, the patent showing the coating
trough with means for producing the vertical upward movement of the
film to drain off excess emulsion and smooth the coating, and the
horizontal chilling section as well as the drier with a chain conveyor
40 H. D. HINELINE [J. S. M. P. E.
and looper bars to carry the coated film in festoons through the drier
room.
Another Patent, No. 588,790, issued to Blair (and another), is
decidedly interesting because of the showing of the large coating roll
upon which the dissolved celluloid or "dope" is spread, dried, and
stripped off to make the film support, and then coated with silver
emulsion and passed to the drier.
Urie and Macusick both utilized a style of processing system that
may be most conveniently described as the "tube" type.
Thus it will be observed that the first workers in the field of continu-
ous photographic processing machinery utilized deep-tank systems,
with several passes of the strip of material in the tanks. This was prob-
ably due to the fact that these early workers usually had their material
in fairly wide strips, from several inches to a foot or two, as distin-
guished from the narrow ribbon of celluloid in which the motion
picture worker is interested. After the broad idea of continuous
processing through a series of containers for the several successive
solutions had been worked out and exemplified in these constructions,
the later types of construction diverged into several typical forms,
which included, besides the deep-tank system of the early workers,
the shallow- tank system in which one tank of considerable length was
provided for each solution ; the so-called tube system in which a series
of relatively deep tubes were provided for each solution; and the
pipe system in which one long tube containing a single bight or loop
of film was utilized. Similarly, the method of conveying the film
through the processing members took several divergent forms, the
early workers using friction rollers above the tanks; which procedure
has continued to find favor with some workers through the subsequent
development. Other forms utilized gears, chains, or tapes of various
kinds; and for motion picture film, various forms of sprocket gears.
Thus we find at last the germ for substantially all the subsequently
constructed forms of continuous processing machinery in the systems
of the very first workers.
Next in order of production appears to have been what may be called
the trough type of processing system, as exemplified by Patent No.
607,649, issued July 19, 1898, to Arthur Schwarz. This patent shows
a series of long shallow troughs carried in a frame one above the other.
The system dealt primarily with paper rather than with film, and fed
the paper from a reel through a trough of developer, then through a
trough of fixing solution, and then through two troughs of wash water
Jan., 1936J CONTINUOUS PROCESSING 41
to a steam-heated drier and rewind spool. It may be noted that this
patent is the United States equivalent of a German patent, and that,
as is usual under such circumstances, the showing is distinctly sketchy.
However, Schwarz seems to have had difficulty with his shallow-
trough system, because soon after his first patent he secured Patent
No. 623,837, issued April 25, 1899, in which he utilized a tube type of
tank with a considerable number of successive tubes of solution and
driven feed rolls over each tube, all the rolls being driven at the same
speed from a common line shaft. It is to be presumed that he en-
countered difficulties with the swelling of the paper as it absorbed
water, but his system offered no means for correcting this.
Schwarz, however, was not the only inventor working upon this
type of system, as is shown by British Patent No. 19,726, of 1896,
which shows a developing system for paper, utilizing a series of tanks,
as distinguished from tubes or troughs, with several passes of the
material in each tank. Along the same lines is the showing of British
Patent No. 21,679, of 1897, issued to DeKato, who shows quite an
extensive paper developing machine with speed control, immersible
frames, solution storage tanks, etc.
An interesting angle of continuous processing is to be found in
Patent No. 665,982, issued to Thornton, who built a coater for apply-
ing a considerable number of very thin layers of emulsion upon film
or paper, with drying ovens between each coating stage to obtain
rapid drying.
These patents show generally the stage of development early
reached for the continuous processing of paper, but none of them dealt
directly with motion picture film. This is not surprising in view of the
fact that most of them antedated the invention of the motion picture.
(Patent No. 493,426 to Edison is of interest as showing approximately
the date of Edison's first motion picture invention.)
The first occurrence in this list of publications of a patent showing
a system for developing cine film is British Patent No. 13,315, of 1898,
issued to Hepworth. Hepworth's apparatus consists of a plurality
of long shallow troughs placed side by side, and having feed sprockets
at each end and a large tank of rinse water underneath. The complete
system is described as including a perforator for perforating the film,
and an automatic printer from which the film was fed into the first
or developer trough by a sprocket, drawn through the trough over a
movable rod which controlled the length of time of immersion, and
then dropped into the rinse tank. Thereafter, it was fed to other
42 H. D. HINELINE [J. S. M. P. E.
solution tanks in succession, such as the fixing and toning tanks, then
through a final wash trough to a drier and rewind spool. Hep worth
included even an alarm apparatus to indicate breakage of the film or
low solution level. It does not appear that any particular means of
temperature control was included, but he does expressly mention the
advantages of sprockets for positive drive of the film through the
several baths.
A patent that is of interest, although not directly in point, is
British Patent No. 22,614, of 1899, issued to Pollak. This patent
shows a photostat type of machine in which the successive prints are
impaled upon tacks on an endless belt, and carried thereby
through the several solutions to the discharge end. Workers in the
motion picture field have attempted to utilize conveyor chains on
sprockets as suggested by Pollak.
These patents dealt with the finishing of photo-material film, but Pat-
ent No. 676,314, issued June 11, 1901, to C. E. Hearson (and British
Patent No. 995, of 1900) dealt with a machine for coating a strip of
film of cine width. This patent is particularly interesting because of
the fact that it shows a drier having top and bottom rolls of con-
siderable length over which the film is carried in a spiral path for dry-
ing, the film being led from the coating machine over the top
roller at one end, down to the bottom roller, back to the first roller
at a point a short distance sidewise, and so on, until the avail-
able space on the rollers was utilized ; then on to the other side of similar
rollers, sufficient to complete the drying, after which the coated film
was reeled. It may be noted that this spiral travel path kept the
wet, sticky emulsion away from contact with its carrying means at
all times and prevented injury to the delicate film surface. This
appears to be the first occurrence of a machine showing the spiral
path for handling cine film.
United States Patent No. 703,671, issued July 1, 1902, to Schwarz,
is substantially identical to British Patent No. 21,679, of 1897, issued
to DeKato.
Patent No. 720,708, issued February 17, 1903, to Latta, is of interest
because, while it discloses a continuous developing machine for paper
only, it shows elaborate mechanism for the recirculation of the solu-
tions and very shallow troughs utilizing a minimum of solution.
Patent No. 721,839, issued March 3, 1903, to Schwarz, shows still
another form of paper processing machine with variable-speed drive,
solution storage tanks, and a clutch member between the tank
Jan., 1936] CONTINUOUS PROCESSING 43
sections to permit obtaining a large loop of paper in the rinse tank.
Patent No. 757,323, issued April 12, 1904, to Lienekampf and
Nauck, shows a trough system for processing paper strip with an
intake feed loop convenient for splicing a new reel of printed paper to
an old one, as well as a variable-speed drive and a circulating pump
for one of the solutions.
Patent No. 830,741, issued September 11, 1906, to Prentiss, shows
a printer station and a plurality of solution troughs with conveyor
bands, and a conveyor chain through a long wash trough.
It is of interest to note that up to the date of these patents none of
them had discussed the question of temperature control. However, a
good discussion of temperature effects is to be found in British Patent
No. 22,456, of 1907, issued to Watkins.
Of course, blue-printing is simple photography, but even blue-
printers found continuous processing desirable, as is shown in Patent
No. 891,289, issued June 23, 1908, to C. F. Pease, whose machine
consisted of successive water tanks, rolls for carrying the paper
through the tanks, rollers in the loops of paper in the water, and a
drier consisting of two large, heated rolls.
The spiral path idea reappears in Patent No. 939,350, issued to
Thompson, who describes an elaborate multi-spiral drier for use with
cine film.
The coating of the original film base in the factory and the drying
of it in large loops through a drying loft appears to have suggested
to cine workers the possibility of handling cine film in the same man-
ner, as is shown by Patent No. 948,731, issued to Ivatts for a con-
veyor belt with hooks and an automatic control for attaching loops of
cine* film thereto for convenience in carrying them through a drying
loft.
The first appearance of a suction means for removing excess mois-
ture seems to be in Patent No. 953,663, issued to Hoglund, in
whose machine the film was passed from a reel type of developing
machine through a suction device and a single-pass drying oven to a
take-up reel.
Patent No. 970,972, issued to Thompson, a prolific worker in the
field, shows a multi-spiral conveyor in combination with means for
dampening a film slightly and applying a nitrocellulose varnish to the
emulsion face for lengthening the film life.
Patent No. 971,889, also issued to Hoglund, shows a vacuum-
cleaner system for removing dust from a film, and with it a supply
44 H. D. HlNELINE [J. S. M. P. E.
reel, means for printing marks upon the film edges, and a rewind.
A continuous drier that may be of some interest to workers in the
field is shown in Patent No. 1,002,634, issued to Brandenberger for
a machine for drying cellophane films.
Another patent of some interest is No. 1,109,208, issued to Davis and
McGregor, which shows a series of shallow tanks with sprocket rollers,
hooded to keep the film upon them, in a spiral path with a similar
drier, the hooded sprockets being roughened to keep the film in place
and insure its travel.
Patent No. 1,141,464, issued to Javault, shows a processing machine
made up of several tanks, each with long top and bottom rollers to
carry the film in a spiral path through the tanks of solution to a drier.
The showing is not very detailed, but is of interest in connection
with the later Gaumont patents.
An interesting type of developing machine which may be called the
pipe type, as distinguished from the tube type, is shown in Patent
No. 1,143,892, issued to Ybarrondo. This patent shows a developing
system consisting of a long pipe with a center guide down which the
film is conveyed. The pipe is indicated as being many feet long,
probably hundreds of feet long, since it appears to have been adapted
to take a full camera spool of film. A not unreasonable guess might
be that Ybarrondo was working at the Fort Lee, N. J., studio, and
planned to run his pipe containers down the side of the hill or down
the Palisades. If so, one wonders how good his temperature control
would have been, even though he appears to have provided for rapid
solution circulation through pipe manifolds, and temperature control
means for heating, which must have been quite vital.
Patent No. 1,150,609, issued to Marrette, shows a drier with an
alarm signal to show film breakage, and counter-current air travel
with two strips of film side by side.
The first suggestion of the continuous processing of color film is to
be found in patent No. 1,169,096, issued to Thornton. His machine
conveyed the film through a spiral path over the carrying rollers for
imbibition of the dye into a prepared gelatin image.
Patent No. 1,172,074 is of interest because it shows a chain carrier
for paper prints, with print grippers upon the chain. It shows tem-
perature control means and all of the processing, including the drying,
upon a single chain and clamp.
A very interesting patent is No. 1,177,697, issued to Gaumont on
April 4, 1916. This is one of the few patents in the list upon which
Jan., 1936] CONTINUOUS PROCESSING 45
there has been litigation (Cinema Patents vs. Warner Bros.). It
shows a plurality of tanks in which are provided upper and lower
crowned spools upon shafts affording a spiral path of travel through
the solution, one spiral in the first tank for developing, two spirals in
the second tank for fixing, and four spirals in a third or washing
tank.
The patent also shows toning or tinting tubes and a drier. This
patent is of particular interest because of the showing of a large storage
tank for solution with a circulating pump and a temperature control
coil. However, in view of the large amount of prior art, as pointed out
above, the patent was held to be of limited scope, and the claims,
while valid, limited to the precise structure shown in the patent and,
therefore, not infringed by the tube type of machine, against which
suit was brought.
An accompanying patent to the preceding is No. 1,209,096, also
issued to Gaumont on December 26, 1916. This patent covers a
drier for use with the previously described solution system or wet
end. It shows similar crowned rolls and means for spiral travel of the
film through the drier, and also shows a safety loop between the tanks
and the drier for protection of the film against breakage between
sections in the event that minor differences in speed occurred between
sections. It also shows an alarm system in the drier which will stop
the motor if the film breaks in the drier. This patent also was held to
be of limited scope, and valid only for the precise structure shown.
Patent No. 1,260,595, issued to Thompson, shows a processing
system in which the spiral path is used with variously sized rollers to
compensate for shrinkage of the film during drying. This patent
also shows a suction device for removing excess moisture, and a
weighted roller in a loop between the solution tank and the drier.
Patent No. 1,261,056 likewise is of some interest because of its dis-
closure of means for splicing the film between successive reels as they
are fed to the processing machine, and is the first disclosure of means
for maintaining the threading of the machine. Previous machines
have made no suggestion of means for threading the system, nor of
means for maintaining the threading between intervals of opera-
tion, obviously quite important matters.
Difficulties are, of course, encountered in the handling of film
upon sprockets, and some workers believe that a full friction drive
would be desirable. Such a system is shown in Patent No. 1,281,711,
also issued to Thompson, in which the friction was maintained by
46 H. D. HINELINE [J. S. M. P. E.
weighted rollers. This machine likewise conveyed the film in a spiral
path in each tank.
Another question untreated in the previously discussed patents is
that of the removal of dirt. Patent No. 1,299,266, also issued to
Thompson, shows a film cleaner between the solution tanks and the
driers, consisting of four squares of fabric upon a drum, which wipe
the film during its passage between the tanks and the drier.
Ybarrondo appears to have elaborated upon his pipe type of
machine in Patent No. 1,319,026, in which he shows a number of
pipes with rollers at the bottoms and means for feeding the film
through them sequentially. He also shows a lamp system for viewing
the films by transmitted light during the processing, this being the
first detailed disclosure of a specialized examination device in a con-
tinuous processing system.
Patent No. 1,328,424, also issued to Thompson, shows a spiral
type of processing machine with a gear-and-chain carrier system, the
film being attached to the chain and carried thereon. The question
might well be raised as to the means for accommodating the swelling
and shrinkage of the film during processing.
Patent No. 1,348,029 is the first occurrence of the idea of a film
floated upon a solution surface. This patent shows a very long
trough containing dye solution upon which the film is floated for im-
bibition of the dye in making color prints.
Another color process is shown in Patent No. 1,351,834, issued to
Capstan7. In this device a series of rollers dip the lower portions in
the dye solution and convey them upward to the under surface of a
film being carried along over the rollers. This was primarily an ex-
perimental laboratory development.
An interesting offshoot is to be found in Patent No. 1,364,321,
issued to Rose, which shows a developing tank and a fixing tank
adapted to be attached directly to the camera retort to permit the
cameraman to develop a short length of film directly from the retort
to verify his exposures.
An interesting device produced in the course of elaboration of the
conveyor-chain type of machine is shown in Patent No. 1,367,435,
issued to F. E. Smith; the machine being constructed with a double
conveyor-chain carried in a spiral path, with the film held by its
sprocket holes alone between the two chains while being carried
through the successive solutions. This type of machine, in common
with various others, may be questioned as to the means of providing
Jan., 1936 J CONTINUOUS PROCESSING 47
for swelling and shrinkage of the film while impaled by its sprocket
holes upon the chain, and the question may also be raised as to the
mechanical efficiency of a pair of chains carried in a spiral path.
Another of the flat-tank type of machines is disclosed in Patent No.
1,377,887, issued to Hubbard. The construction shown is of shafts
at the ends of the shallow tanks to carry the film in a spiral path,
the tanks being positioned one above the other. This system
did not utilize the sprocket holes in the film for carrying purposes,
but depended upon a friction drive between the rollers and the
film.
It is, of course, desirable that as little solution as possible shall be
carried from tank to tank, and, accordingly, various means have been
suggested for removing excess fluid, such as the form shown in Patent
No. 1,380,279, issued to Wescott. This mechanism consists of two
pairs of opposed air jets acting upon opposite sides of the film to re-
move the loose moisture by air-blast. Such a mechanism is much
less dangerous to the film and occupies much less space than the verti-
cal rise of film required to remove the moisture by gravitational
drainage.
Still another of the tube type of processing machines is shown in
Patent No. 1,385,403, issued to Sentou and Jacquet. This machine
includes crowned rollers with guards, and the bottom roller is carried
on cords running to the bottom of the tank.
Another form of moisture-removing jet device is shown in Patent
No. 1,407,543, issued to Hubbard, disclosing an elaborate system of
two opposed flat air jets co-acting on opposite sides of the film.
Patent No. 1,435,764 shows another form of shallow tank with the
film floated upon the surface for imbibition of die solution in the manu-
facture of colored film.
A somewhat odd and unusual structure is to be found in Patent No.
1,444,818, also issued to Wescott. This patent discloses an elaborate
system of skewed rollers mounted both over a narrow tank and at the
bottom of the tanks in the loops between sections. The structure is
peculiar, and the purpose not clearly brought out.
In any continuous processing system, there is more or less constant
danger of injury to the film. This is particularly the case where the
sprocket holes are utilized for carrying the film forward, and various
workers have attempted to minimize this danger. Patent No. 1,461,-
794, issued to DeMoos, discloses a tube type of machine, utilizing
sprockets for conveying the film through the solutions, the sprockets
48 H. D. HINELINE [J. S. M. P. E.
having only one set of teeth, the purpose presumably being to re-
duce the danger of injury to the film.
With a given developer formula the amount of development is a
function of the speed of travel through the machine and also of the
depth of submersion in the solution, the development time at a given
speed in feet per second of film being determined by the length of the
loops of film submerged in the solution. Patent No. 1,467,106, also
issued to DeMoos, discloses an indicator to correlate the depth of
submersion of the film and the speed of travel of the film, so that as
the depth of submersion increases, the speed of travel may also be
proportionately increased.
Not alone do the tanks, and the conveyors therein, of any kind of
continuous processing system, take various forms, but the drier sys-
tems likewise assume varied shapes. The earlier drying reels for batch
processings were quite satisfactory, and it is not surprising that a
worker should attempt to adapt the reel to continuous processing.
Such a system is shown in Patent No. 1,473,542, issued to Chanier
(and another) . The disclosure in this patent is distinctly sketchy, but
it shows roughly a pair of reels, one above the other, for the film,
which is conveyed thereover in a spiral path, the reels being set with
the axes at a slight angle to insure travel of the film. Of course, during
the processing of the film, a substantial amount of swelling of the film
during immersion and processing occurs in the wet end, and this swell-
ing largely disappears during the drying operation in the drier cabinet,
making particularly necessary some means for compensating for the
change in length of the film. Patent No. 1,479,453, issued to Carlton,
shows a drier with swinging arms at the bottom to adjust the slack
and to compensate for the drying shrinkage.
Some workers appear to have had difficulty in the way of losing
rollers in the bottom of a processing tank when the film breaks, and
have regarded it necessary to provide preventive means. Such a
structure is shown in Patent No. 1,495,678, issued to Ybarrondo.
This patent discloses chains for carrying the bottom rollers, but ap-
pears to be hardly a vital refinement.
When any material is processed from rolls, it is necessary to make
flying splices, and this need occurs in the film processing industry as
well as in the newspaper printing field (the printer can use paste, but
the photographer can not). Patent No. 1,540,831 shows a running
splicer for cine" film in which, as a prior reel empties, a bail falls and hits
a stapling machine, driving a staple through the end of the leading film
Jan., 1936] CONTINUOUS PROCESSING 49
and the beginning of the following film to fasten them together in
order to carry the second film through the processing. This pro-
cedure appears to be merely making automatic what was long prior
manual practice with a wire stapling machine.
Another refinement in the processing is shown in Patent No. 1,542,-
530, issued to Salins for a system in which several spirals of film are
carried through a single tank and means are provided for stopping the
input of film and raising the bottom rolls to shorten the development
time; an ingenious idea, but perhaps unnecessarily complicated in
comparison to the simple procedure of changing the speed of film
travel.
Another variant is shown in Patent No. 1,555,957, also issued to
Ybarrondo, in which the inventor suggests the use of a wide belt car-
ried through the processing tanks with films stapled to it, the idea ap-
parently being to process several films simultaneously.
Still another form is shown in Patent No. 1,568,344, issued to
Moody (and another), for a structure in which the film is carried by a
chain with side clasp, gripping the edges of the film for conveyance
through the processing steps.
Shrinkage difficulties in the driers appear to have inspired various
other workers to the production of driers with shrinkage compensa-
tion. Still another form is shown in Patent No. 1,569,156, issued to
Thompson, for a structure utilizing a spiral path in the drier, with suc-
cessively smaller drive wheels toward the output end to traverse the
film more slowly and thereby compensate for shrinkage during the
drying operation. It may be remarked that such compensation is not
necessary when the film is traversed over sprockets, since the number
of sprocket holes traversed for a unit time is constant without regard
to the shrinking or swelling of the film.
Any continuous processing system in constant operation will ex-
haust the strength of far more solution than can be maintained in con-
veniently sized tanks before the solution oxidizes seriously, and it ap-
pears that practically all the commercial processes utilize storage
tanks for developing solution and fixing solution, from which the solu-
tions are circulated by pumps. It is not obvious why a continuous
processing system should be built to contain a minimum amount of
solution unless it be for occasional brief usage, where it is desired to
furnish the system with solutions at a minimal cost. This may be
the case in the structure shown in Patent No. 1,570,809, issued to
Wescott for a system utilizing flattened tubes, the film traversing a
50 H. D. HlNELINE [J. S. M. P. E.
spiral path so as to utilize a relatively very small quantity of solution.
Some workers have elaborated extensively upon the mechanism by
the provision of means for modifying the treatment of various parts of
the same strip of film, as by variable submersion, stoppage of various
portions of the film, etc., as shown in Patent No. 1,579,399, issued to
Salins.
Still another elaboration is shown in Patent No. 1,592,924, issued to
Carbenay, the most interesting feature of which is the provision of a
mechanical uncoupling mechanism to vary the length of the film loop
in the tank, thereby varying the development time.
Still another elaboration is shown in Patent No. 1,595,294, issued
to DeMoos, disclosing a drier system in which are incorporated a
mechanism for indicating shrinkage of the film and a stop to prevent
undue length of film loops in the drier.
A neat elaboration of the development time control is shown in
Patent No. 1,603,512, issued to Carlton, disclosing a system of change-
speed gears for the driving mechanism and minute adjustment of the
depth of immersion of the film.
Air for removing excess moisture must be under substantial pressure
and compressed air is not inexpensive; nor is it easily obtained free
from oil and dust. These difficulties apparently have led to the pro-
posal of other means for removing moisture from the film, such as
that shown in Patent No. 1,607,417 issued to Wescott, which discloses
a chamois skin belt running in contact with the film to remove mois-
ture, with a wringer roll for keeping the chamois belt in absorbent
condition.
The foregoing patents disclose practically all the requirements for a
satisfactory form of continuous processing mechanism, and the
patents listed in the appendix hereto cover only refinements, which,
while convenient, are not essential for efficient film processing. This
fact has been brought out by the Court holding in the case of Cinema
Patents vs. Warner Bros. Pictures, in which suit was brought on the
Gaumont Patents Nos. 1,177,697 and 1,209,696. These patents have
expired since the bringing of the suit. The Court held, and was sus-
tained upon appeal, that the patents contained claims valid for pro-
tecting the precise structure shown in the Gaumont patents — that is,
tanks with crowned rollers therein for carrying the film in a spiral
form in the tank, and driers with similar crowned rollers for carrying
the film in a spiral path — but that the claims were not entitled to any
substantial breadth of equivalency because of the large amount of
Jan., 1936]
CONTINUOUS PROCESSING
51
prior art, as pointed out above. Accordingly, the Court found that
the Warner simple type of tube machine with carrying sprockets did
not infringe these patents.
It, therefore, appears that the motion picture industry has devel-
oped efficient and satisfactory continuous film processing machinery
adapted to convenient operation, which is free of patent limitations
and open to all who wish to utilize machinery for continuous proc-
essing.
. The above abstract of patents discloses most of the features for con-
venient and efficient processing machinery, but there have been many
minor improvements made and patented which would require undue
space in this article if they were abstracted. However, for those who
are directly interested in the matter, the following patent bibliography
is offered. Any of these patents may be obtained from the United
States Government, Commissioner of Patents, upon request, at a cost
of ten cents per copy.
APPENDIX
Patents Disclosing Refinements in Continuous Processing Mechanisms
No.
358,848
607,648
630,500
664,982
717,021
720,708
939,350
948,731
Inventor
G. EASTMAN, et al.
588,790 T. H. BLAIR, et al.
A. SCHWARZ
J. K. GRAEME
J. E. THORNTON
A. POLLAK
P. LATTA
721,839 A. SCHWARZ
757,323 O. LIENEKAMPF, et al.
830,741 F. S. R. PRENTISS
864,123 F. M. COSSITT
F. B. THOMPSON
E. A. IVATTS
953,663 G. E. HOGLUND
Title
Apparatus for manufacturing sensitive photo-
graphic films
Method of and apparatus for making photo-
graphic films
Continuous photographic printing apparatus
Developing apparatus
Manufacture of photographic sensitized ma-
terials
Photographic developing apparatus
Apparatus for developing, fixing, and toning
kinematographic or other photographic
films
Apparatus for developing, toning, and fixing
photographs
Photographic developing apparatus
Multiple printing, developing, fixing, wash-
ing, and drying apparatus
Method or process of coating nitrocellulose
film
Film-drying machine
Apparatus for the continuous drying of per-
forated kinematographic films
Film drying apparatus
52
H. D. HlNELINE
[J S. M. P. E.
No. Inventor
970,972 F. B. THOMPSON
971,889 G. E. HOGLUND
1,109,208 G. C. DOBBS AND
M. MCGREGOR
1,141,464 R. JA VAULT
1,143,892 V. C. YBARRONDO
1,150,609 J. MARETTE
1,172,074 C. C. TOWNES
1,233,664 P. D. BREWSTER
1,260,595 F. B. THOMPSON
1,261,056 A. J. PFOHL
1,281,711 F. B. THOMPSON
1,299,266 F. B. THOMPSON
1,328,464 F. B. THOMPSON
1,348,029 J. MASON
1,351,834 J. G. CAPSTAFF
1,361,555 H. WEISS
1,403,779 F. W. HOCHSTETTER
1,461,329 G. A. SALINS
1,487,375 C. H. FUCHS
1,493,866 W. PARKS
1,527,132 F. J. M. HANSEN
1,543,301 F. J. J. STOCK
1,561,699
1,569,151
1,574,591
1,586,710
1,587,051
1,591,436
1,607,417
1,607,440
1,611,196
1,615,047
1,623,788
1,629,097
1,629,154
1,631,476
1,653,451
V. C. YBARRONDO
V. A. STEWART
A. L. ADATTE
R. W. SCOTT
F. B. THOMPSON
G. A. SALINS
W. B. WESCOTT
D. F. COMSTOCK
R. JOHN
J. SHAW, et al.
1,616,642 L. T. TROLAND, et al.
C. A. HOXIE
V. C. YBARRONDO
V. C. YBARRONDO
C. DsMoos
V. C: YBARRONDO
Title
Method of coating picture films
Apparatus for preparing moving picture films
Apparatus for successive treatment for motion
picture films
Apparatus for developing and washing cine-
matographic films
Apparatus for developing films
Machine for drying cinematographic films and
the like
Photoprint developing machine
Apparatus for treating cinematographic films
Film treating apparatus
Reserve feed and splicing apparatus
Photographic film treating apparatus
Film wiping apparatus
Film treating apparatus
Method and apparatus for treating films
Apparatus for treating motion picture films
Photographic printing apparatus
Process and apparatus for sensitizing photo-
graphic film and paper
Machine for treating cinematographic films
Wiping attachment for film drying apparatus
Cinematograph film developing apparatus
Apparatus for use in the treatment of photo-
graphic film
Method of regenerating worn cinematographic
films
Method and apparatus for developing films
Process of water-proofing motion picture films
and other gelatinous surfaces
Multiple film guide mounting
Film treating and handling device
Photographic film treating apparatus
Machine for automatic coloring of films
Squeegee apparatus
Cinematographic film treating apparatus
Film drying apparatus
Method of and apparatus for treating con-
tinuous films
Removal of superficial liquid from cinemato-
graphic films
Photographic developing apparatus
Apparatus for handling motion picture films
Pneumatic pulley for motion picture films
Photographic film developing machine
Motion picture film developing machine
Jan., 1930]
CONTINUOUS PROCESSING
53
No.
Inventor
1,654,723
V. C. YBARRONDO
1,666,999
F. E. GARBUTT, et al.
1,679,096
G. POURFILLET, et al.
1,682,943
W. M. THOMAS
1,690,616
J. G. CAPSTAFF
1,699,349
W. B. DAILY
1,707,709
D. F. COMSTOCK
1,723,950
F. J. MUELLER
1,734,476
R. F. ELDER
1,762,936
M. W. SEYMOUR
1,810,209
G. HAYNES
Title
Film developing machine having positive drive
Film developing machine
Film treating apparatus
Apparatus for treating films
Film treating apparatus
Method of and means for making photo-
graphic paper, film, or the like
Apparatus for liquid treatment of photo-
• graphic films
Film handling apparatus
Method of producing colored films
Photographic reversal process
Film treating machine
OPTICAL PRINTING AND TECHNIC*
LYNN DUNN**
Summary. — The subject of optical printing is discussed with particular reference
to the problems involved and the requirements for good results. After outlining
the requisites of a simple printer for registration printing and straight duping, the
printer used in the Camera Effects Department at the RKO Studio is described in de-
tail. The paper concludes with a brief description of some of the special work done
upon this printer.
Optical printing, or projection printing, as it is sometimes called,
is a process of rephotographing at approximately unit magnification,
from one motion picture film to another. The apparatus used for
this work is almost invariably specially designed and built, and con-
sists essentially of a standard motion picture camera fitted with a
registration movement, facing a printer head, likewise equipped with
a registering or pilot-pin movement, and mounted upon a rigid lathe
bed. With the one exception of speed of operation, this method is
by far the most satisfactory of all motion picture printing methods.
Full control of the original film and the raw stock is possible at all
times, and the process is subject to an almost infinite degree of
manipulation.
Optical printing is utilized for an endless variety of work. Dupli-
cate negatives may be made of a positive film when the negative is
not available or when a new negative is wanted; scenes that are un-
satisfactory as to action or quality can often be salvaged; many
shots formerly made in the camera — such as fades, dissolves, matted
shots, and double-exposure or "split-screen" and composite scenes —
are now made on the optical printer. Moreover, an entirely new
range of trick effects, such as wipe-offs, trick transitions, and the like,
have been made possible by this device. In a word, the optical
printer is used to do almost everything in the line of trick photog-
raphy on a duplicate negative. For that reason, it is generally re-
* Presented at the Spring, 1935, Meeting at Hollywood, Calif. An adaptation
by the author from the American Cinematographer.
** Camera Effects Dept., RKO Studios, Hollywood, Calif.
54
OPTICAL PRINTING AND TECHNIC 55
garded as the backbone of the Trick Camera Department. Regardless
of whether or not a production includes any of the generally accepted
forms of special effects camera work, it is certain to include a consid-
erable footage of optically printed film. It might not be too much
to say that during the past four or five years hardly a single produc-
tion has been released that did not utilize the services of the optical
printer to some extent.
Laboratory manipulation plays a very important part in attaining
first-class quality in duping. Variation in the standard of this work
is felt more by the optical printing department than by the production
cinematographer, due to the fact that the quality of the dupe must
match the original. It should be remembered that where in regular
production cinematography, the laboratory is a factor in three basic
steps, i. e., (1) developing the original negative, (2) making the print,
and (3) developing it ; in optical printing the laboratory is a factor in
no less than five such steps: (1) making the duplicating positive,
(2} developing it, (3) developing the dupe negative, (4) making
the final print from the dupe negative, and (5) developing the latter
print. Obviously, the margin for laboratory errors is almost doubled,
and successful results indicate an extremely high degree of labora-
tory cooperation.
Every man doing optical printing has to contend with certain
definite sources of difficulty. If he can reduce the difficulties to only
one, and concentrate his attention upon that one, he will find that
his results will become more and more consistently satisfactory.
Consistency is, of course, the most important consideration in quality
optical printing. When once a satisfactory system of duping is
worked out to fit the conditions and equipment at hand, the con-
sistency of the laboratory work becomes the greatest single factor in
continuously achieving good results. Granting that the printing
equipment itself is first-class, from the laboratory point of view,
making the lavender duping print is of the greatest importance in
producing good duplicate negatives. Needless to say, without a
good master print, duplication of the original negative is next to im-
possible. A slight variation from the proper contrast in the lavender
print can be compensated in the exposure and development of the
dupe negative, or by change in the duplicating raw film used. But
this, of course, means variation from the set system which has been
worked out, and obvious uncertainty as to the ultimate results.
To maintain the necessary consistency in the quality of the work
56 L. DUNN [j. s. M. p. E.
done for a large studio, as much latitude as possible is necessary in
the two major steps. These steps — making the duping print and
developing the dupe negative — must have great latitude in order to
accommodate any possible variations in the film, positive and nega-
tive developer, and optical printer exposure. The last factor, how-
ever, is of little consequence when one has proper checking facilities,
such as a photo-cell photometer and a tachometer. It has been found
that a duping print reproduces most consistently the best when made
upon a soft lavender positive stock, developed normally. This print
should be timed so that the highlights are printed through about two
points darker than would be the case in a normal print for projection.
This will still permit the blacks to be easily penetrated if the duping
positive stock has the proper degree of softness. The duping nega-
tive raw stock used should then be soft enough to permit a full normal
development in order to duplicate the contrast of the original
negative.
It must be admitted that this duping formula is not the best for
really fine-grain results ; but the problem of consistency from day to
day, necessary in quantity studio work, seems to be of greater im-
portance. Due to the number of fine-grain raw films available today,
the question of grain does not seem to be of as much importance as
that of variation in matching the original contrast in a dupe. A dupe
can be rather excessive as to graininess, but match the original well in
contrast, and show a much less noticeable "jump" in quality upon
the screen than if the reverse condition were true. This discussion of
graininess is in reference to dissolves that are "jump cut" into the
original negative. Graininess is, of course, much more objectionable
when the dupe is run at any length; but under normal present-day
conditions the graininess of the average properly made dupe is gen-
erally not noticeable to the general public. Much less difference can
be noticed in the graininess of different duping stocks than in the re-
sults attained with different developers.
An interesting method of duping is from a duping print timed
normally and developed in negative developer for about two-thirds
the normal time. The dupe negative is then made on soft lavender
positive stock and developed to exactly the same gamma as the
duping print. This is an ideal system for fine grain, but is ob-
viously much too critical to be followed without particularly care-
ful laboratory supervision, so that strict consistency may be main-
tained. Any slight variation in either step throws the process off
Jan., 1936] OPTICAL PRINTING AND TECHNIC 57
balance, due to the lack of latitude in the method. Obviously, there
is certainly a saving in the cost of the dupe negative raw stock used
in this method. However, another element that enters the question,
when a radically different type of duping print such as this is used,
is the fact that the optical printing department is very often called
upon to dupe a stock scene received from another studio. This
print is usually the more orthodox type of lavender, and it must
sometimes be mixed in a series dissolve with a special type of duping
print such as described above. Obviously in this case, one or the
other type will suffer in reproduction. For these reasons, in studio
optical printing it is unwise to stray very far from the generally
accepted method of commercial quantity duping.
The subject of equipment is a difficult matter, due to the fact that
very little is standard except the general layout of the camera and
the printer facing each other upon a lathe bed and driven in synchro-
nism. From a mechanical point of view the quality of the dupe
depends upon three factors: (1) the lens; (2} the quality and even-
ness of the light; and (3) uniform speed. Any sharp, clean-cutting
lens having an absolutely flat field can be used. A focal length of
four inches is most acceptable, as that places the camera at a good
workable distance from the printer head. The speed need not be
faster than //4.5. Aside from the regular cine* lenses, there are on
the market copying lenses that are excellent for use in optical printers.
A well diffused, 1000- watt, tubular projection lamp is very satisfac-
tory for a printing light, and is strong enough to permit the lens to be
used well closed down, giving improved definition. The motor
should be powerful enough to drive the printer without speed fluctua-
tion. A voltage regulator should be in the line, and the speed
should be controlled by a rheostat rather than by change of pulleys
or gears.
What has been said above gives some idea of the requisites of a
simple printer, one that could be used for straight dupes and regis-
tration printing. As there is no standard in optical printers, every
one has an individual design — usually a conglomeration of many ideas.
All optical printers generally start out with the simple layout as out-
lined above, and are added to as the money is appropriated. If the
optical printer is properly designed from the start, the additions can
be made easily, and will become integral parts of the machine.
This, of course, requires close cooperation between a first-class ma-
chinist-designer and the printer operator.
58 L.DUNN [J. S. M. p. E.
As a concrete example of optical printer design, the printer used
in the Camera Effects Department at the RKO Studio may be de-
scribed. Figs. 1 to 4 show four different views of it. With the ex-
ception of the wipe-over device, all attachments are permanent fix-
tures. The machine itself is one of the most modern in design, and
is extremely efficient for all-around printing and trick work, operat-
ing with great ease and precision. Due to the fact that at present
RKO has but one optical printer for all types of work, this machine is
FIG. 1. Complete view of optical printer from the operating side.
constantly in use. Another machine, for the simpler, straight print-
ing, is now being completed. In addition to all straight duping, spe-
cial trick matting shots, multiple-exposure work, and all other printer
trick work, this machine is called upon to make all the registration
prints for process-background work. This method has been the
ultimate means of attaining perfect registration in the process com-
posite. The prints are made upon the RKO machine at a printing
speed of about eighteen feet per minute. The printer can run as
fast as forty-two feet per minute for emergency rush work.
Fig. 1 is a complete front view of the optical printer from the oper-
ating side. The lathe bed is six feet long, allowing for magnified shots
Jan., 1936]
OPTICAL PRINTING AND TECHNIC
59
and reduced-aperture work. The four rheostats mounted upon the
lower right side of the printer are for controlling the light, printer
speed, and motor rewind speed. The printer-head moves vertically,
and the camera-head moves laterally. Both movements can be
made by hand or motor. The camera can also be rocked mechani-
cally.
In Fig. 2 (right end front view) the five dials are indicators for
calibrating the afore-mentioned movements, graduated to 0.001 inch.
Fig. 2. Near view of the operating end of the printer.
Another of the same type of dial (not visible in the picture) is used to
indicate the lens focus, which is varied by the travel of the lathe
carriage. A is the camera drive shaft with a footage counter mounted
at the top. This shaft has a gear-change for eliminating alternate
frames. B is the motor rewind control. Film in the printer can be
rewound in either direction at a speed of more than ninety feet per
minute. C and D are controls to connect or disconnect the camera
and the printer-head independently while in motion. The printer-
head can be run in either direction. R and F are the automatic
geared take-ups for the printer-head. G is a switchbox for most of
the electrical controls, including an automatic stop. This feature
60
L. DUNN
[J. S. M. P. E.
causes the printer-head to stop in synchronism at any frame pre-
viously notched upon the edge. This is handy when certain frames
in a scene need to be eliminated or repeated. H is the air-pressure
control: air is piped to both sides of the movement, and just below
the printer-head. The air is used to prevent "breathing" of old
film, and for cleaning film entering the movement.
/ is the eyepiece for an intercepting prism in back of the lens.
When this prism is moved in, it throws the image upon a special
Fig. 3. Corner view, from right end of threading side.
ground glass showing the exact line-up of the camera aperture. This
ground glass has mounted upon it a means for accurately registering
a film for line-up purposes, with arrangements for moving the film
along, frame by frame. In this way, any movement of the printer
can be made to match a movement upon another film. // is a built-in
film-punch, which places a notch four frames from the frame in the
aperture. K is the mounting for two signal lights. The left light is a
red warning light, which comes on when either camera- or printer-
head is moved more than one-thousandth of an inch from its normal
line-up. The other is a marker light, which comes on during a fade
when the shutter reaches a predetermined opening. As the printer
Jan., 1936]
OPTICAL PRINTING AND TECHNIC
61
light tests are two-foot fades, this facilitates reading the correct
shutter opening for the density chosen. This same marker light,
manuJky operated, is used to indicate the exact frame where a dis-
solve starts and ends, enabling the film editor to cut in his dissolves
quickly and accurately.
Fig. 3 (right end rear view) shows the printer from the threading
side. The counter, L, has a large frame-indicator, which aids in re-
making dissolves any number of times to an exact length. Crank
FIG. 4. View of the threading side of the printer, from the left end.
M operates the rocking of the printer-head. This feature is used for
giving slight movement to boat and airplane interior scenes, and for
other shots requiring such motions; and also for quickly levelling
up certain scenes, and titles. Mounted upon rods between the two
heads is the wipe-over device, N. Interchangeable mattes of all
kinds mount upon this device, and wipes of any length can be made.
Many attachments are available for making the various trick wipes
called for. The ground glass window at the top of the lamp house is
a handy feature for easily and accurately checking the film density.
The lamp employed is of the 1000- watt, tubular projection type, the
light from which is diffused by two ground glasses. The tachometer,
62 L. DUNN [J. S. M. P. E.
P, is for accurately checking the motor speed. At the rear end of the
printer can be noticed a metal frame, Q. The lamp house can be
readily removed, and upon this frame mounted a larger printing
field which is focused upon the printer aperture. This field can be
illuminated by a spot from behind, or by the reflected light of two
spots from the sides, in front. Any retouching, matting, or filtering
can be easily done, working to a large scale upon this printing field.
Matted shots can be made in practically no more time than it takes to
paint the matte. Shadows and highlights in stationary shots can
be intensified or reduced with the same ease with which a retoucher
works upon a still picture. Stationary or moving clouds can be
doubled in scenes with great ease.
Fig. 4 (left end rear view) illustrates how the printer-head move-
ment is mounted. The front of the movement is flush with the
front of the printer-head, permitting the use of hard mattes in front
of the film. The water cell, R, helps to reduce the heat from the
lamp on the film. Behind the water cell are mounted the light-
diffusing screens. The flanges shown can be easily interchanged for
reels. Hand cranks are on either side of the printer-head for con-
venience in threading. The movement is a standard Bell & Howell
pilot-pin movement, with the rear pressure-plate cut away. A spe-
cial feature to be found in dupes made upon this machine is the repro-
duction of the original key numbers, both movements having been
altered for this feature. The advantage of these key numbers to the
film editor in synchronizing and cutting in the dissolves can readily
be seen. The camera lens, T, slides into and out of its mount
smoothly and without revolving, always returning exactly to its origi-
nal line-up. This is an advantage for quick reducing or enlarging,
and for certain zoom up and out-of -focus dissolves. At the back of
the lens-mount is located the intercepting prism mentioned previ-
ously. Below the mount is the bracket holding the matte device
rods. This bracket has vertical and horizontal adjustments, enabling
the mattes to be slid into and out of the scene during the photo-
graphing. Although this printer may appear somewhat complicated,
the important feature of it is its ease of operation, due to its special
features and the accessibility of all controls. A great quantity of
work can be run through it in a surprisingly short time.
It will be of interest to outline some of the special trick work done
upon the optical printer. During the last few years tricky wipe-offs
and intricate transitions have greatly increased in popularity. The
Jan., 1936] OPTICAL PRINTING AND TECHNIC 63
transition, in the sense in which it is generally referred to, is an inter-
woven series of short impressionistic and graphic scenes. This effect
has become a very popular means to pass over an important point in
the story quickly and definitely, usually as a means of indicating a
lapse of time. The transition is compiled upon the optical printer.
A definition of the wipe-off can be "a very short mechanically effected
transition from one time or place to another, used in lieu of the more
conventional lap dissolve." Tricky variations of the wipe-off are
usually found in musicals, comedies, and some action dramas.
Trick wipe-offs are many and varied, and are usually limited only
by the ingenuity of those who devise them and the means at hand to
produce them. The ultimate success of such effects depends usually
upon how appropriately they are inserted into the picture. The wipe-
ofl is most effective when carefully adapted to the action and tempo
of the scenes involved. One of the first pictures to utilize the trick
wipe-off throughout was a short called So This Is Harris. Following
this came Melody Cruise and Flying Down to Rio, all these pictures
employing the trick wipe-off in various forms in preference to lap dis-
solves.
Many odd and interesting problems present themselves to the
optical printing department of a major studio. Very often the man
in charge of the work is called upon to salvage a scene that is unusable,
due to some unfortunate occurrence during the filming of the pro-
duction. The following is a typical example of how the printer can
save the studio many dollars: In filming a recent war-aviation pic-
ture a crashed plane was supposed to burst into flames just as the
pilot climbed from the cockpit and reached the ground. It so hap-
pened that the plane did not flare up until the pilot had left the cock-
pit, reached the ground, and had crawled out of the scene. This
way, the scene naturally lacked the "thrill," and was therefore
counted a loss and scheduled for a retake, which involved quite an
expenditure. The optical printer was given an opportunity to see
what it could do to save the scene, so a test was made, dissolving to a
split screen around the man at the moment he touched the ground.
In this dissolve, the action of the plane was moved ahead about
twenty feet to the point at which it burst into flames, thus eliminating
the dead footage. However, the area that included the man's action
continued on normally, the split screen being made with a soft blend
that was imperceptible.
Another example of a simple job that saved much money occurred
64 L. DUNN [J. S. M. p. E.
in a recent picture in which an oil-truck moving into an important
scene had an objectionable name upon it. By means of a fine grease
pencil mark placed upon a glass in front of the optical printer aper-
ture, the name was slightly blurred, enough to prevent its being recog-
nized. The glass was slid along frame by frame to match the move-
ment of the truck.
Jobs of this type present themselves regularly, and prove more and
more the importance of the optical printer to modern motion picture
making. What the future holds for this branch of trick cinematog-
raphy is hard to predict, but as studio executives become more and
more familiar with its limitless artistic and money-saving possibili-
ties, as briefly outlined here, it is certain that they will take more
interest in this branch of their Camera Effects Department.
(A reel of film was projected, showing an assortment of optical printer effects from
past RKO pictures, in order to afford an idea of the work that can be done on the device
described above.)
DISCUSSION
MR. CRABTREE : What is the slowest printing speed that you would be willing
to tolerate?
MR. DUNN: The average speed is about 20 feet per minute, and the slowest
speed we should want to tolerate would be about six feet per minute.
MR. CRABTREE: We all know that definition greatly influences the graininess
of the result in duping. In other words, if the image is thrown very slightly out
of focus, the graininess is greatly diminished. I was wondering whether you de-
liberately throw it out of focus, or whether you aim at the ultimate in definition
in making the dupes?
MR. DUNN: We aim at the ultimate in definition — just as sharp as we can pos-
sibly get the dupe. One of the main reasons is that if a dissolve were made slightly
out of focus to reduce the graininess, there would be a noticeable jump when it
was cut into the original. Definition is very important, and what definition loss
you see is due partly to the graininess and partly to the optical system.
MR. CRABTREE: Do you recommend making the lavender to a lower degree of
contrast than the average positive print, or to a higher degree of contrast?
MR. DUNN: There are different practices in Hollywood. Some studios use a
lavender of higher than normal gamma, and some use lower. It usually depends
a lot upon the set-up of the equipment, the quality of the lens, and the laboratory
facilities at hand. We find that using a softer lavender and a softer negative
duping stock affords more latitude to the duping process, and when a quantity of
work is run through all the time, the latitude is very important.
MR. CRABTREE: The softer you develop your lavender, of course, the greater
must be the contrast of the negative?
MR. DUNN: The contrast is built up by the optical printer. The light trans-
mission builds up the contrast to a much greater degree than in contact printing.
Jan., 1936] OPTICAL PRINTING AND TECHNIC 65
It is built up to such a degree that really our greatest difficulty is that it generally
varies to a higher gamma rather than a lower.
MR. CRABTREE: Do you print from the lavender print on the optical printer?
Also, at what stage do you put your trick stuff in — when making the lavender
print from the original negative, or when making the dupe negative from the
lavender?
MR. DUNN: That depends entirely upon the trick effect that is to be made.
Some effects necessitate work upon the lavender at the time it is made from the
original negative, and then again when the lavender is photographed, depending
upon whether we have to work with a positive or a negative. In other words, if
we have to block out while printing the original negative, the results naturally
will be clear film; and if we block out while photographing the lavender, the re-
sults will be black. So it depends upon the type of effect needed. In most cases,
it is during the last step, photographing the lavender.
MR. DEPUE: How was the trick effect accomplished in the demonstration reel
when the picture folded off or folded down?
MR. DUNN: That is an effect that we have made only once. Some of the effects
are brainstorms, and one has to go almost into a trance to make them ; and after
they are finished it is hard to tell just how they were done. That effect was done
with a single frame. Although some of you might have noticed that that was a
single frame, I do not believe that the average public would. The scene following
the effect is blocked out to fit the first scene's frame sliding out. In other words,
it is matted out to conform to the positions of the frame as it will slide out. Then
that frame is put into a special holder and lined up to normal position, and slid
out mechanically, synchronized with the previous matting. It happens, I be-
lieve, in about a foot and a half of film, so the single frame does not seem to be
noticeable in most cases.
MR. CRABTREE : Assuming that you print both the lavender and the dupe nega-
tive in the optical printer as you have indicated, you have a choice of two proce-
dures: first, to develop the lavender to a high gamma and the negative to a rela-
tively low gamma ; or, second, to develop the lavender to a medium gamma and
the negative to a higher gamma than in the first case. Of those two procedures
which do you prefer?
MR. DUNN: We don't employ either procedure. The procedure we employ
is not, as I said in the paper, entirely desirable, but we have to use it on account of
the consistency and the quantity of work, and the rush with which it has to be
gotten out. We make our lavender to a lower gamma than in an ordinary pro-
jection print, and develop the negative to a lower gamma than normal. So it is
really softer on both ends, the contrast being built up by the optical printer. The
ordinary production positive gamma, we might say, as used at RKO, is about
2.20 or 2.30, and our lavender goes to 1.70. The original negative is developed to,
I believe, 0.68 and our dupe negative to about 0.55, so that the gamma is lower
than normal on both ends. That is really a feature that is not entirely desirable,
but the optical printer builds up so much contrast that it is necessary.
MR. CRABTREE: With regard to definition, it is of extreme importance when
making comparisons to focus the image repeatedly upon the screen. You have to
have a telescope at the projector and continuously focus the image in order to
make really worth-while comparisons with regard to graininess.
66 L. DUNN
MR. DUNN: That is right.
MR, CRABTREE : Does the laboratory develop the lavender and the dupe nega-
tive for you separately, or do they like to run the negative, for instance, with the
regular run of negatives, and the lavender with the regular run of positives?
MR. DUNN: They like to do it in the simplest way, naturally; and we find that
the simpler we can make it for the laboratory, the less trouble we have, unless the
laboratory is right under our control, which it is not, in our case. For consistency
and evenness I have tried to adjust my system so that the lavender develops the
same speed as the ordinary daily production print, and the dupe negative develops
the same speed as the production negative. As I said in the paper, that is not
quite desirable, but we get better general results and greater consistency.
To do this naturally necessitated quite a lot of experimentation with various
raw stocks in order to make them fit the conditions. As we were working to a
certain developing time, the only factor that we could vary was the type of raw
stock, and we have arrived at a raw stock combination that is quite satisfactory.
It seems that we can not use any other as successfully, but I have tested other
stocks, and have found that we were using a pretty good set-up as far as stock
graininess is concerned.
The only thing that would improve our graininess considerably would be to use
a special developer, paraphenylene, for example, for negative development.
MR. CRABTREE: That is why I asked the question as to the minimum speed
that you would tolerate. I suppose if you could get results, probably you would
go down to one frame a second, perhaps?
MR. DUNN: No, we should not, because we have the studio problem to take into
consideration. We should not be able to get the work out in time.
MR. KIENNINGER: How close do you place the diffusion to the negative?
MR. DUNN: About eight inches, I should say, back of the negative. It is well
clear of the negative, so that it can be any kind of ground glass, coarse or fine.
MR. KIENNINGER: Do you have to go back that far?
MR. DUNN: No, we do not have to, but we have not found any reason to come
closer, and it gives us more room to thread the printer and put in mattes.
MR. KIENNINGER: What is your optical printer factor or gamma compared
with the contact printer gamma?
MR. DUNN: About the difference between 3.0 and 1.5. I should say it would
almost double the contrast.
WIDE-RANGE REPRODUCTION IN THEATERS*
J. P. MAXFIELD AND C. FLANNAGAN**
Summary. — The problem of wide-range reproduction in theaters is discussed
with reference to the amplifier output power capacity; the importance of accurate
adjustment of equipment; special installation technic; acoustic diagnosis for posi-
tioning of high-frequency, mid-range, and low-frequency units; volume setting;
and diagnosis of acoustic treatment of backstage interference.
The purpose of any sound reproducing system in a theater is to
enable the sound portion of a talking picture to be reproduced in such
a manner that the full dramatic effects desired may be produced
in the audience. In the early days of sound pictures there were two
distinct limitations that prevented the system from completely ful-
filling this requirement: first, a limited frequency range; and,
second, a limited loudness or volume range. While there were, of
course, other forms of distortion present they were, in most in-
stances, of less commercial importance than the two just mentioned.
From an engineering standpoint these older systems might have
been termed "restricted-range systems."
In contrast to these are the "wide-range" systems with which this
paper deals and in which both frequency and volume ranges have
been very considerably increased. We feel that we now have a sys-
tem, the range of which is adequate to reproduce all the qualities of
the human voice and falls much less short of complete reproduction
of an orchestra than did the older systems.
It is obvious that an effective extension of the volume and frequency
range provides the picture director with a tool that will greatly as-
sist him in bringing out inflections and qualities of the voice that were
before largely, if not entirely, lost. Likewise, the extension of the
volume range provides him with a means for achieving dramatic
effects which before could be only approximated.
With reference to the extension of the frequency range, the data
* Presented at the Spring, 1935, Meeting at Hollywood, Calif.
** Electrical Research Products, Inc., New York, N. Y.
67
68
J. P. MAXFIELD AND C. FLANNAGAN [j. s. M. p. E.
usually presented take the form of a steady-state frequency charac-
teristic. Attainment of a satisfactory curve of this kind is, however,
not the only requirement, and it might be interesting to point out
some of the factors that are important to good performance. While
it is certainly requisite that all the components of each sound shall
be reproduced in their correct amplitudes, it is also desirable that the
sound shall be reproduced with the right duration. Resonant ele-
ments introduce transients, recognized as a prolongation of some
sounds beyond their natural duration, so that they overlap the follow-
ing sounds, thus distorting quality. In the present advanced state
I!
gj
Maximum theater volume in 1000 cu. ft.
FIG. 1. Relation between capacity of amplifier and size of auditorium.
of the art this is not often so in the electrical design. Such prolonga-
tion occurs occasionally in the case of loud speakers of inadequate
design and frequently in auditoriums where the backstage area per-
mits marked standing-wave patterns. Such effects impair the per-
formance of the best sound systems.
A further requirement of the system is that there be no non-linear
distortion, which distortion is evidenced by the introduction of com-
ponents that are not present in the original sound. In other words,
there must be a linear relationship between the amplitude of the in-
put and that of the output in all parts of the system.
Jan., 1936] WlDE- RANGE REPRODUCTION 69
AMPLIFIER OUTPUT POWER CAPACITY
This leads naturally to a consideration of the power output of the
amplifier necessary to supply auditoriums of various sizes. A con-
siderable amount of work1-2 has been done along this line which makes
it possible to set the amplifier requirements rather definitely. Fig. 1
shows a curve, the ordinates of which represent the power output ca-
pacity of the amplifier and the abscissas of which represent the cubical
contents of the largest auditorium for which this amplifier is regarded
as commercially satisfactory with the present loud speakers.
The question of the power required for wide-range reproduction is
rather interesting. If a system already installed be modified to per-
mit wide-range reproduction without consideration of the amplifier
power capacity, well recorded music will sound slightly louder than it
does on the standard system. On the other hand, the improvement
in naturalness, brought about by extending the range, leads one to feel
that he is listening to the orchestra itself rather than a reproduction
of it, and the immediate reaction is a feeling that the loudness is in-
sufficient. It is interesting that this improvement in quality appears
to transfer the mind of the listener from an artificial standard to the
standard of the real original performance. In view of this effect, it
has been found desirable to increase the power capacity available for
the wide-range system as compared with the old standard system.
In theaters already equipped with systems of the old type, observa-
tions were made to determine the adequacy of existing amplifiers be-
fore the wide-range modification. It was found desirable in many
cases to modify or replace the amplifiers to insure conformance with
the requirements shown in Fig. 1. In theaters not previously wired
for sound, higher powered amplifiers than would normally be em-
ployed in restricted-range systems were installed.
Wide-range systems appear to have sufficient power to reproduce
adequately anything now recorded upon, or likely to be recorded
upon, film in the near future. Whether or not they have sufficient
reserve to meet any future demand is, of course, impossible to foretell
accurately.
IMPORTANCE OF ACCURATE ADJUSTMENT OF EQUIPMENT
In order to attain the greatest dramatic effect from this improved
equipment, it has been necessary to develop a very definite technic of
installation. The procedure is of importance, first, in coordinating
70 J. P. MAXFIELD AND C. FLANNAGAN [j. s. M. p. E.
the operation of the various parts of the equipment, one with an-
other; and, second, in acoustically draping the backstage space to
avoid standing-wave interferences.
As a preliminary to the description of this procedure, a brief state-
ment regarding the equipment may be of interest. The equipment
consists, essentially, of the sound-head for translating the sound-
track into electrical impulses, an amplifier system to amplify these
weak impulses, and a loud speaker system to translate the electric
currents back into sound. The main part of the description will deal
with the loud speaker equipment, although it has been necessary to
make improvements in all parts of the system in order that it may be
capable of transmitting to the loud speakers the increased volume
and frequency range.
The loud speaker system differs materially from the earlier com-
mercial theater types mainly in that there are three sets of loud
speakers, one for the low frequencies, one for the mid-range, and one
for the extremely high frequencies. In addition to these three sets of
speakers, a network is necessary for splitting the output current of
the amplifier into three frequency-bands, one for each set of loud
speakers. The ranges covered by these three sets of loud speakers
are approximately as follows:
Low-frequency set Up to 300 cycles
Mid-range set 300 to about 3000 cycles
High-frequency set 3000 cycles and up
It will be seen from a consideration of this type of system that a
definite problem is found in arranging the system to avoid bad inter-
ference within the frequency ranges in which the various sets of loud
speakers overlap. This is particularly true because the electrical
network that divides the amplifier output into the three frequency-
bands is not of the sharp cut-off type, and therefore permits consid-
erable overlapping of the various sets of speakers. The sharpness of
this cut-off, in a commercial system, is of necessity a compromise
between expense and effectiveness. The sharpness afforded by this
system has been found adequate for good quality provided the
proper installation procedure is followed.
SPECIAL INSTALLATION TECHNIC— GENERAL
The special installation technic is carried out for the purpose of
insuring that the various parts of the reproducing equipment co-
Jan., 1936] WlDE-RANGE REPRODUCTION 71
operate properly with one another. This technic has naturally
divided itself into the following series of operations:
(1) Acoustic diagnosis of theater auditorium.
(2) Positioning the mid-range horns to afford best sound distribution.
(3) Positioning and volume setting of the low-frequency units.
(4) Diagnosis and acoustic treatment of backstage interferences.
(5) Positioning and volume setting of high-frequency units.
(6) Final check of system on commercial product.
ACOUSTIC DIAGNOSIS OF THEATER AUDITORIUM
If expense were no object, the acoustic diagnosis would be made
with measuring instruments, many of which have been described in
the literature.3 However, it is frequently impracticable to make the
necessary measurements, and under such conditions the reverbera-
tion time and its frequency characteristic are computed from a survey
of the size and shape of the auditorium and from the nature of the
floor, walls, seats, hangings, etc. This reverberation time becomes
the starting point of the theater analysis.
In the application of the wide-range systems to the theater, there
are other acoustic properties besides the average reverberation time
which are of great importance. Again, for practical reasons, these
effects have been divided into two groups : those caused by the front-
stage sound in the auditorium and those caused by the conditions
backstage. All discussion of the backstage troubles will be left to a
later portion of the paper, and the present discussion will deal only
with the frontstage effects.
These special effects refer to concentrated reflections from large,
flat, or curved surfaces, such as the back wall, a curved ceiling or
dome, the front of a deep balcony, etc. As is well known,4 the rever-
beration time for satisfactory reproduction lies between two limits
which are rather widely separated. In practice, very few houses, if
any, are found to be too dead. Therefore, it has been customary to
specify these limits as the time of reverberation for optimal reproduc-
tion and as the maximal time of reverberation acceptable for com-
mercially good quality. In addition to determining the reverbera-
tion time, which is an index of general liveness, the acoustic analysis
determines the presence of echoes, "slaps," multiple reflections, etc.,
from undamped, curved, flat surfaces. In theaters having such de-
fects, which have not been corrected by acoustic treatment, careful
diagnosis by ear, after the system has been installed, frequently per-
mits positioning the loud speakers to minimize the defects. Such
72 J. P. MAXFIELD AND C. FLANNAGAN [j. s. M. P E.
diagnosis consists in exploring the whole audience area by ear while
reproducing some form of speech with the loud speakers on the stage.
It has been found possible, under these conditions, to locate the so-
called "slap" or echo areas; and, in most cases, a visual inspection of
the position of the sound-source, the slap area, and the geometry of
the house leads immediately to detecting the sound path causing the
difficulty. However, a considerable amount of skill is involved.
POSITIONING MID-RANGE HORNS
The next step of the procedure, therefore, is to position the mid-
range, or horn, speakers in such a manner that their sound is distrib-
uted to the audience area without bad interference from echoes and
slaps. In the majority of houses, the reverberation time of which
lies within acceptable limits, this is possible without additional acous-
tic treatment Since the horn speakers are directional to a large de-
gree, it is possible to direct the sound into the audience area in such a
manner that very little direct sound from the horns reaches the trouble-
some reflecting areas. Naturally, in the case of a curved back wall,
it is necessary either to sacrifice good sound in some of the back seats
or to apply acoustic treatment to the wall immediately above the
heads of the audience.
Since the majority of theaters have a higher reverberation time
than optimal, and are, therefore, livelier than desirable, the technic
of avoiding "slap" by concentrating the sound upon the audience
area has automatically introduced an improvement, namely, an
apparent decrease in the reverberation of the house. Because the
ear interprets the liveness of a reproduction by the ratio of the time
integral of the reverberant sound to the intensity of the direct sound,5
any means of increasing the direct sound or of decreasing the rever-
berant sound tends to decrease the liveness. By concentrating the
direct sound from the horns upon the audience area, a maximum of
direct sound is attained at the listener's ear. In addition, since the
audience usually constitutes the most effective damping in the theater,
the reflected sound that finally reaches the livelier part of the theater,
to become reverberation, is thereby decreased. For both these rea-
sons, therefore, a house can be made to appear under reproducing
conditions, deader than it would be for a real performance for which
most of the sound sources are relatively non-directional. This is one
of the reasons why the maximal acceptable time of reverberation is
as high as it is for reproduced speech.
Jan., 1936] WlDE- RANGE REPRODUCTION 73
One interesting effect has been noticed in connection with setting
the horns, namely, that a much more accurate setting can be ob-
tained by so positioning them, initially, that they definitely include
the error to be avoided. They are then angled or moved slightly un-
til this error disappears. This implies that the ear can more accu-
rately determine the removal of an error than the approach to it.
Whether this would be true if the recording and its reproduction were
perfect is not known, but it is certainly true under the present practi-
cal conditions.
POSITIONING AND VOLUME SETTING OF LOW-FREQUENCY UNITS
Now that the horns have been properly set, the next step of the
procedure is the addition of the low-frequency units. Early in the
wide-range work a phase relationship was looked for between the
lower-frequency and mid-range units, and an effect was found that
was mistaken for a real phase relationship. Later work, however,
indicated that this effect had many properties that did not agree with
real vector phasing, and the exact nature of the effect is not com-
pletely known. The presence of real vector phasing is audible, but
the slight change of quality brought about by it is neither disagree-
able nor is it noticeable to the majority of the public. On the other
hand, the important effect, that is, the one previously mistaken for
real phasing, produces a marked difference in quality according to the
correctness or incorrectness of the geometrical and electrical relations
between the mid-range and the low-frequency units. The effect of
improper relationship is easily noticed, and is disliked by the majority
of the public. In the so-called unphased conditions, the sound is
distinctly disagreeable; whereas in the so-called phased position, it
is said by the layman to be pleasing to listen to.
It has been found that for a horn of a given length there are a series
of fore and aft positions at which the baffle may be placed for good
quality. This is on the assumption that the mid-range and the low-
frequency units are electrically poled identically; that is, that the
current supplied to them produces, in both sets of units, movements of
the diaphragms in the same direction. If the polarity of either set of
units be reversed, a new series of positions are found for the baffle
half-way between the points lying upon the previously mentioned
series. It is no wonder, therefore, that this effect was mistaken at
first for vector phasing.
In the early technic, loud speakers were set to reproduce correctly
74 J. P. MAXFIELD AND C. FLANNAGAN [j. s. M. p. E.
for a point on the floor of the house, and the balcony was regarded as
of secondary importance. However, in several installations where
two observers were available, one was placed in the balcony and one
on the floor of the house. It was surprising to find that both these
observers chose the same phasing positions in spite of the fact that
in some cases the observer in the balcony should have been in a posi-
tion 180 degrees out of phase with the position of the observer on the
floor. In other words, this effect is not a real sound-vector phasing
effect, but appears to have something to do with the diffraction pat-
tern set up about the top edge of the baffle and the bottom edge of the
horn. This is further corroborated by the fact that the so-called
phasing position is independent of the vertical distance between the
lower edge of the horn mouth and the top edge of the baffle.
DIAGNOSIS AND ACOUSTIC TREATMENT OF BACKSTAGE INTERFERENCES
The backstage acoustic difficulties are brought about mainly by the
radiation from the back of the low-frequency units and by the mid-
range sound reflected into the backstage area by the screen. This
sound is reflected from the various walls of the backstage area, and
some of it returns to the units in such phase relation as to add to the
sound then being radiated. Under these conditions marked stand-
ing-wave patterns are set up. The commonest, and usually the most
marked, of these patterns is that existing between the low-frequency
units and the rear stage wall. In order to minimize this pattern the
baffle is usually inclined slightly with respect to the vertical in such a
manner that the sound returning from the back wall and striking the
baffle is reflected slightly upward, thereby avoiding a sharp standing-
wave pattern between two hard, parallel surfaces. In spite of this
precaution, a rather severe pattern is usually set up, and acoustic
absorption material is necessary to counteract its bad effects.
It is well known6 that acoustic damping material is most effective
in a standing-wave pattern at the position where the air particle ve-
locity is greatest. This position on the wave is the position of mini-
mal sound to the ear, since the maximal velocity position is the posi-
tion of minimal pressure variation.
In order to diagnose the position of this velocity maximum it is
necessary only to move the head slowly from the back wall to the
baffle while the system is reproducing male speech. During this pro-
cedure the positions are noted at which the so-called "boominess" of
the sound is least. These positions of least "boominess" are the
Jan., 1936] WlDE-RANGE REPRODUCTION 75
points at which damping material will be most effective. From a
commercial standpoint it is fortunate that the minimum nearest the
baffle is usually the sharpest one, and, therefore, constitutes the most
effective position for the draping material.
The draping material used is unimportant, provided that it is soft
and flexible and has an absorption equivalent to Ozite, */4 to Vz inch
thick. Two thicknesses of heavy velour spaced one inch apart have
been found quite satisfactory.
Having found the proper position for the drape, which is usually
called the main drape, it is hung immediately. It is now necessary
again to explore the backstage for additional standing-wave patterns
which sometimes arise between the low-frequency units and the side-
walls or between the low-frequency units and the ceiling. With the
main drapes in place, it is occasionally found that the sound, as heard
in the auditorium, either lacks "presence," that is, appears to come
from some distance behind the screen, or that it seems as if consider-
able non-linear distortion were present. Under these circumstances
it is necessary to explore the backstage area, particularly the region
between the bottom of the horn mouths and the top of the baffle, for
the presence of patterns. This is done, as in the previous case, by
moving the head slowly about in this area while speech is being repro-
duced. In this case, instead of getting sharp maxima and minima of
intensity, a condition is found in which the head moves from a region
of badly garbled speech to one of relatively clean, clear, intelligible
speech. As before, drapes should be hung at the position of least
garbling; in other words, at the position of maximal clarity.
The importance of careful backstage draping can not be too vigor-
ously stressed, because most of the troubles of the early installations of
wide-range systems were brought about by complicated backstage
patterns. These troubles were mainly removed when this pattern
was properly diagnosed and the necessary drapes hung.
POSITIONING AND VOLUME SETTING OP HIGH-FREQUENCY UNITS
It will be seen that up to this point the system has been operated
without the high-frequency units, and that it is ready for commercial
use except for the addition of these units. It has been found by ex-
perience that the positioning technic for these is similar to that for
the baffle with respect to the mid-range units. The positioning of the
high-frequency units is of great importance as regards the quality
that will be obtained from the system. The high-frequency units
76 J. P. MAXFIELD AND C. FLANNAGAN [J. S. M. p. E.
show a definite series of fore and aft positions, with respect to the
mouth of the mid-range horns, at which the sound quality is pleasing.
If the polarity of the high-frequency units be reversed, a new series of
positions are found lying half-way between the positions of the first
series. This is a rather startling result, because the air-path differ-
ence to the screen from the diaphragm of the mid-range units and
from the diaphragm of the high-frequency units is frequently as
great as fourteen feet. This distance corresponds roughly to forty
times the distance between the positions at which the high-frequency
units sound good. Since the dividing network is not of the sharp cut-
off variety, there is considerable overlap between the mid-range and
high-frequency units and it is readily seen that this positioning effect
can not possibly be real vector phasing.
Having positioned the high-frequency units by ear during the re-
production of an adequate test-film, the only remaining step is to
regulate their intensities so that they blend properly with the rest
of the reproduction. With this done, a final check is made with the
commercial product available in the theater.
RESUME OF EXPERIENCE UNDER WIDELY VARYING FIELD CONDITIONS
Reproducing equipment designed and installed to fulfill the fore-
going requirements has been in use in more than twelve hundred
theaters. In some theaters it has been in operation for over two
years. As would be expected in a theater group of such size, prac-
tically all types of auditoriums are represented. Under these circum-
stances the problem of attaining and maintaining optimal perform-
ance through installation and service of the equipment has been of
much importance.
The equipment, as developed and installed, has proved itself very
flexible under these varied practical conditions of field operation.
It has been possible to use the system in houses of widely varying
acoustic properties and to achieve in these houses the full dramatic
possibilities of which the equipment is capable. This, of course, does
not mean that all the houses have been found satisfactory without the
help of acoustic treatment. On the other hand, it does mean that
many houses, which, on the basis of the old system, were regarded as
very difficult acoustically, have been successfully equipped with the
wide-range system with no acoustic treatment of the auditorium.
The adoption of this installation technic has produced in the
theaters a quality varying between narrow limits from one theater
Jan., 1936] WlDE-RANGE REPRODUCTION 77
to another. This should be of material assistance to the recording
directors who have to make products to be played in theaters through-
out the country.
Although the average releases do not include material that com-
pletely shows the capabilities of wide-range systems, there are some
that do, and a steady improvement in this respect is rapidly becom-
ing general. As this is written, releases are being shown that can not
be presented to full advantage on restricted-range systems.
Exhibitors are aware of the superiority of wide-range systems as is
evidenced by their willingness to install new equipment even in these
times of low box-office receipts. The public is only partially aware
of it, but is gradually appreciating those theaters that provide better
dramatic value in their sound. This appreciation will, of course,
be accelerated as the sound quality of the average release is improved
and the picture director takes greater advantage of the dramatic
possibilities available to him.
REFERENCES
1 WOLF, S. K., AND SETTE, W. J.: "Acoustic Power Levels in Sound Picture
Reproduction," /. Acoust. Soc. Amer., 2 (Jan., 1931), No. 3. p. 384.
2 FLETCHER, H.: "Auditory Perspective — Basic Requirements," Electrical
Engineering, 53 (Jan., 1934), No. 1, p. 9.
3 STANTON, G. T., SCHMID, F. C., AND BROWN, W. J.: "Reverberation Measure-
ments in Auditoriums," /. Acoust. Soc. Amer., 6 (Oct., 1934), No. 2, p. 95.
4 WATSON, F. R. : "Acoustics of Buildings," Jo hn Wiley & Sons. New York ( 1923).
6 ALBERSHEIM, W. J., AND MAXFIELD, J. P.: "An Acoustic Constant of En-
closed Spaces Correlatable with Their Apparent Liveness," Meeting of Acoust.
Soc. Amer. (May, 1932).
6 SABINE, W. C.: "Collected Papers on Acoustics," Harvard Univ. Press, 1927.
DISCUSSION
MR. TIMMER: What is the frequency range for the three units?
MR. MAXFIELD: The lowest frequency is about 55 cycles per second, and the
highest one is somewhere above 10,000, so far as the horns themselves are con-
cerned. The modern amplifiers fulfill that requirement.
MR. SETMEIRER: In the Journal of the Acoustical Society, Eiker and Strutt
report increases in loudness where the reproducing units have characteristics
differing in level by as much as 12 db. Have you come across any relations simi-
lar to that in the overlapping of the characteristics of the various horns?
MR. MAXFIELD : No. In general, the addition of the bass has increased the
loudness by about what would be expected on an energy-addition basis. I read
with some interest the paper of Eiker and Strutt, and made a rough check with
78 J. P. MAXFIELD AND C. FLANNAGAN
some of our theater systems. We did not find the unexpected increase that they
mentioned. However, Eiker and Strutt used loud speakers widely separated in
space, whereas in the theater system described that is not the case.
MR. KELLOGG: In the discussion at the Acoustical Society meeting, Dr. Strutt
and others concluded that it was necessary that the loud speakers be separated,
but we could find no justification for that in tests that were run at Camden. Dr.
Fletcher cited the following example, which seemed to me to explain what Eiker
and Strutt reported : If the entire spectrum of music or speech is cut in two, with
low-pass and high-pass filters, at such a point that the total loudness contributed
by each part is about equal to that of the other, then, when the two are put to-
gether, the loudness of the combination is about 9 db. greater than that of either
half alone. That being true, I should expect that the addition of the bass unit,
of which Mr. Maxfield spoke, would contribute in the combination more volume
than we should judge it would by hearing the bass alone.
MR. MAXFIELD: As I said before, the filter or split circuit is not a sharp cut-off
filter, nor in the old systems were the low frequencies completely missing. They
were merely down in intensity, as compared with the higher ones. I do not be-
lieve we are dealing here with quite the situation that applies in the Strutt paper,
or in the experiment that Fletcher discussed. Fletcher was using sharp cut-off
filters, and I believe that is the reason why he found a much greater effect than
we do. I believe we have found a small difference occasionally, but we never had
the measuring instruments with us in the theater to make a careful quantitative
check.
MR. BROCKWAY: Is the tendency of the recording reverberation in the film to
cut down the optimal reverberation time in the theaters, or does that become
noticeable at all?
MR. MAXFIELD: That is rather a long story, but we have found in connection
with recording reverberation that the greater the liveliness of the theater in which
the sound is to be reproduced, the more reverberation should be recorded in the
original sound. In other words, it is a question of making the reproduction appear
to be an extension of the auditorium in which one is listening, and the extension
should appear to exist immediately behind the screen, i. e., in the space that is
imagined to be filled by the three dimensions of the picture.
Fortunately, the "liveness" range of the houses that are acceptable from an
intelligibility standpoint is sufficiently narrow so that a single average of record-
ing can be made which will take care of the majority of the houses satisfactorily.
AN INVESTIGATION OF SOURCES OF DIRECT
CURRENT FOR THE NON-ROTATING HIGH-
INTENSITY REFLECTING ARC*
C. C. DASH**
Summary. — Results of investigations on sources of direct current for the non-
rotating, high-intensity reflecting arc are presented. Data are given on the operating
characteristics, including efficiency and power-factor.
The introduction of the non-rotating, high-intensity reflecting
arc has presented a problem to the electrical manufacturers in the
production of a satisfactory source of direct current for use with this
arc. Its operating characteristics, which have been discussed in
earlier papers, are quite different from those of the previous types
used in motion picture projection. The new arc is much more sus-
ceptible to changes of voltage in the d-c. source than the old arc, and
hence must be handled more carefully, and more precautions must be
taken in selecting the current supply equipment.
(A) D-c. power service from central station
(B) A-c. to d-c. converting equipment
( 1 ) Non-rota ting equipment :
(a) Hot cathode tube rectifiers
(6) Copper-oxide rectifiers
(2} Rotating equipment :
(a) Synchronous converters
(b] Motor-generator sets
(1) Generator for each lamp, drooping characteristic, no
ballast
(2) Generator, flat -compounded using ballast
A. DIRECT-CURRENT LINE SERVICE
When d-c. service is obtained from a central station the auxiliary
equipment used with the arc need be only properly designed ballast
rheostats having a sufficient voltage drop to limit the current to the
proper value at the correct arc voltage. In the average theater
* Presented at the Spring, 1935, Meeting at Hollywood, Calif.
** Hertner Electric Co., Cleveland, Ohio.
79
80 C. C. DASH [j. s. M. p. E.
installation the voltage delivered by the central station usually in-
creases at about nine o'clock in the evening and it is necessary to
have some easily operated regulating device upon the ballast rheostat
so that the resistance can be changed in order to compensate for this
increase in supply voltage. When considering the over-all efficiency
of using direct current from a central station, it must be borne in
mind that the cost per kilowatt hour for direct current from such a
source is usually much higher than that paid per unit when the power
is obtained from a-c. mains.
For an arc voltage of 35 volts and a current of 50 amperes, the
total power drawn from the d-c. line at 115 volts is 5750 watts, of
which 1750 would be utilized in the lamp and 4000 consumed in the
ballast resistance in the form of heat. The over-all efficiency, there-
fore, is 30.4 per cent. The inrush of current when the arc is struck,
using this form of supply, is but very little greater than the normal
operating value, and does not exceed ten to fifteen per cent more than
the normal operating current.
The power equipment in the central station or in a central system
usually consists of a multiplicity of types and sizes of generators.
In some instances storage batteries are floated across the d-c. line,
so that there is practically no ripple and the current is practically
true direct current. As the noise in an arc is a function of the ripple
in the d-c. supply, and inasmuch as there is no ripple with such an
arrangement, there is practically no hum in the arc.
The current through the arc is very steady, due to the large ballast
drop, but the results attained with a meter for measuring the steadi-
ness of the light indicate considerable variation of the luminous
intensity upon the screen due to the fact that the arc voltage can vary
considerably without a compensating change in the current, and
thereby affect the light output. The operating characteristic when
working on the d-c. power line is not important to the operator as
long as the power source remains steady and the voltage does not
fluctuate suddenly.
B. A-C. TO D-C. CONVERTING EQUIPMENT
Non-Rotating Equipment
(a) Hot Cathode Tube Rectifier— The hot cathode tube rectifier
uses no ballast resistance between the tube and the lamp. These
rectifiers are made to operate from three- or two-phase supplies, and
may be operated on single phase. The over-all efficiency of a hot
Jan.,
D-c. SOURCES FOR REFLECTING ARC
81
cathode tube rectifier that was tested, using an arc voltage of 35 and
an arc current of 50 amperes, was 65.5 per cent. The power-factor
when supplying the above-mentioned load was 65.6 per cent. The
inrush of current when the arc was struck varied between 75 and 95
amperes, or an average of 85 amperes for the 50-ampere arc. These
readings were taken with an aperiodic meter. The volt-ampere per-
formance of this type of rectifier is shown in Fig. 1.
The ripple in the direct current produced by the rectifier has a fre-
eo
50
^
\
X
N
x
X
K
-vl
§
20
10
0
(.
^
^
"^--,
^^,
"^^
^,^1
--
-*^
Q
. ^1
a
i
i
? 10 20 30 40 50 eo 70
AMPERES
FIG. 1. Volt-ampere characteristic of the hot cathode tube
rectifier.
quency of 240 cycles, the transformers being connected in the open
delta arrangement. The rms. voltage of the ripple when the rectifier
delivers 50 amperes at 35 volts is 4.25. . When operating without load,
the rms. voltage of the ripple is 14.5. The result is that the ripple
produces noise in the arc of such frequency that it may cause inter-
ference.
The current in the arc varies between 46 and 60 amperes when the
rectifier is adjusted to supply 50 amperes at 35 volts. Part of this
change is due to the characteristic of the arc, but most of it is due to
fluctuations in the a-c. line voltage. In the hot cathode tube rectifier,
the d-c. output is magnetically connected to the a-c. input so that
82
C. C. DASH
[J. S. M. p. E.
fluctuations in the a-c. line voltage are carried directly through the
rectifier, causing magnified fluctuations in the screen illumination.
In the case of gradual changes of the a-c. voltage, correction can be
made by changing the taps on the rectifier transformer; but when the
changes occur suddenly they can not be compensated for ; and when
the voltage increases, the tubes and the carbons become overloaded,
resulting in decreased tube life as well as increased carbon consump-
tion and a flare upon the screen.
The question of tube life is very uncertain. The average esti-
mated life is 1000 hours, so that figures applying to the operating
cost of the hot cathode rectifier should include the tube cost in order
10
20
(50
70
30 40 50
AMPERES
FIG. 2. Volt-ampere characteristic of the copper-oxide rectifier.
that they may be on a comparable basis with the costs of other types
of equipment. If the arc is not properly handled, a surge may occur
and damage the tube.
(b) Copper-Oxide Rectifier. — The copper-oxide rectifier recently
placed upon the market also operates without any ballast resistance
between the rectifier and the arc. The over-all efficiency of a copper-
oxide rectifier that was tested, supplying a 50-ampere arc at 35 volts,
was 65.5 per cent, including the fan and relay losses. The power-
factor when supplying a normal load was 93.6 per cent; and the in-
rush of current when the arc was struck, using the same equipment
as was used in former tests of this nature, averaged 95 amperes.
Fig. 2 shows the volt-ampere characteristic of the copper-oxide
rectifier. The rms. ripple voltage is 1.2 volts, the frequency in this
case being 360 cycles. The ripple causes considerable noise in the arc,
Jan., 1936)
D-c. SOURCES FOR REFLECTING ARC
83
but it is difficult to give any comparative values of the noise with the
two types of rectifiers. The observations showed that this arc was
not as noisy as the arc produced by direct current supplied by the hot
cathode rectifier. In operation, the arc current and voltage seemed
to be steadier in that the changes were slower than the corresponding
fluctuations in the hot cathode rectifier. This type of rectifier can not
be operated without a ventilating system because the high tempera-
ture that is developed is extremely detrimental to the life of the oxide
film. The copper-oxide rectifier transmits a-c. line voltage fluctua-
tions through to the arc just as does the other type of rectifier.
Rotating Equipment
(a) The Synchronous Converter. — The synchronous converter does
not lend itself readily to this application because the low voltage
required for the non-
rotating high-intensity
reflecting lamp necessi-
tates a d-c. output at
42-45 volts and an a-c.
input to the rectifier at
28 volts. This presents
a very serious problem
in slip-ring and a-c.
brush design in order to
keep the cost of the
machine within commer-
cial limits. It is neces-
sary also to use a static
transformer in order to
bring the existing line
voltage to the 28-volt
value required for the
converter. We do not know of any synchronous converters being
offered for use with this type of arc.
(b) Motor-Generators. — Motor-generator sets of various types
have been used for supplying the direct current to the projection
arcs since the advent of the motion picture. In the early days, a
shunt-wound generator having a fast-drooping volt-ampere char-
acteristic, such as shown in Fig. 3, was used. This generator was very
successful with the old style vertical carbon arc having an arc voltage
so
40
)
^30
j
s
20
10
o
^
r"*"***
^
^
^
^
^^
V
^>
ss
\
/
4
X
Q
3
n
0 10 20 30 40 50'
D.C. AMPERES
FIG. 3. Fast-drooping characteristic of early
shunt-wound generator.
84 C. C. DASH [j. s. M. P. E.
of approximately 55 volts. The first of these generators was built to
operate one lamp only; and when it was desired to make the change-
over, the arc for the second lamp was "stolen" from the first, the two
arcs being connected in parallel with no ballast resistance in the arc
circuits. The instant the arc was struck on the second projector,
the arc on the first projector would be extinguished. Such a condi-
tion was not satisfactory from an operating standpoint, with the
result that later developments raised the possible operating voltage
of the generator so that two arcs could be simultaneously operated
in series during the period of change-over. The old series arc sets
were very efficient inasmuch as they utilized the entire copper ca-
pacity of the generator at rated load. The magnetic circuit, how-
ever, had to be of such proportions as to carry sufficient magnetic
flux to produce the required open-circuit voltage ; consequently, the
material costs of these machines were a little higher than those of
constant- voltage machines for the same operating voltage and normal
full-load current. The over-all efficiency from line to generator was
high, due to the absence of ballast resistance in the projection arc
circuit.
When used with the non-rotating, high-intensity lamp, this type of
generator must be designed for a lower operating voltage than was
desirable when it was used with the old style open arc. It also has to
be designed so that within the operating range of voltage, the current
will tend to increase slightly with decreased arc voltage. This is
necessary in order to assure any stability of the d-c. arc, and is one of
the characteristics of the horizontal arcs wherein they differ from the
vertical arcs formerly used.
It has been found with the shunt-wound type of generator using
no ballast resistance between the generator and the arc, that unless a
reverse series field is used to produce the constant-current effect,
making it differentially compound, it is difficult to attain perfect
commutation and long life of the commutator. In order to maintain
the current approximately constant with this type of machine without
a reverse series field, it is necessary to shift the brushes in the direc-
tion of rotation so that the armature reactions are demagnetizing. If
not carried too far, this would provide a better commutating position
than the no-load neutral point on a non-interpole machine; but to
gain this result, the brush-shift has to be greater than is desirable to
attain good commutation, and the coils undergoing commutation
would then be outside the commutating field. Poor commutation
Jan., 1936] D-C. SOURCES FOR REFLECTING ARC 85
results also from insufficient saturation of the magnetic circuit, since
the latter is saturated at the open-circuit voltage while at the operat-
ing voltage the main pole flux is weak. In one type of motor-genera-
tor set that was quite popular several years ago, the commutation was
materially improved and made satisfactory by an adjustable interpole,
the position of which could be shifted so that its field was directly over
the coil undergoing commutation when the brushes were shifted to
attain a practically constant current.
Unsatisfactory commutation is not always evident when the
generator is first put into operation. A burning apparently occurs
beneath the brush, which does not cause visible sparking and does not
manifest itself until the machine has been in service for some time,
when the commutator begins to blacken and trouble begins.
When the non-rotating, high-intensity reflecting arc was first pro-
posed it was found possible to operate it directly across the terminals
of a constant- voltage generator and obtain a steady arc. It was
found, however, that additional stability of the arc could be gained by
using a small ballast resistance in the arc circuit with a constant-
voltage, d-c. source. While the arc operating directly across the
generator was perfectly stable under laboratory conditions, it was
soon discovered that under operating conditions, and because of the
wide variation in ideas as to what constituted proper arc voltage, the
operation was not so successful.
The over-all efficiency of the series type of dual generator unit
(using two generators driven by a single motor) built for use with the
non-rotating, high-intensity arc, averages 60 per cent when delivering
50 amperes at 35 volts. This presupposes that the field circuit of
the generator that is not supplying current to the arc is open, and is
thus not consuming power needlessly. The power-factor averages 82
per cent on normal load. The inrush of current to the arc when
struck is 77 amperes. The commutator ripple is a very complex
wave, but is practically negligible, resulting in an extremely quiet arc.
As the two generators are driven by a single motor, the first arc will
show a diminution in light when the second arc is struck, due to the
increased slip of the motor. When operating one arc continuously,
the current varies from 48 to 53 amperes, the arc voltage varying
from 35 to 38 volts when maintaining a constant arc length.
Where shunt-wound generators having drooping characteristics
are used to supply current in the modern theater it is customary to
use one generator for each lamp. In some cases the two generators
86
C. C. DASH
[J. S. M. P. E.
are driven by a single motor. The connections to the lamp switches
are made in such a manner in some cases that the field circuit of the
generator is not energized while the arc is off; when the lamp switch
is closed, the field is energized just before the arc is struck. The
output voltage decreases as the temperature of the field windings
increases, the decrease being most rapid during the first ten to fifteen
minutes of operation. In order to minimize this effect, in occasional
installations the field circuits of the two machines are kept closed
even when the machine is not delivering current to the arc. The
idle machine delivers a high open-circuit voltage, causing excessive
40
20
10
20
30 40 50 60 70
80
90 100
FIG. 4. Volt-ampere characteristic of flat-compounded generator
of double-arc capacity.
copper loss in the shunt field coils as well as a high iron loss, and the
generator runs much hotter than normal. Although operating in
this manner lessens the change that occurs in the output current and
voltage due to the temperature changes of the field windings, it
results in a lowering of the over-all efficiency of the set from 60 to 53.7
per cent.
The flat-compounded generator can be designed for the best
operating characteristic both as regards voltage regulation and com-
mutation. The magnetic circuit can be designed so that a fair degree
of saturation is attained under normal operating loads. The interpole
field can be proportioned so as to neutralize the armature reaction
and also provide a commutating field of the proper strength for
perfect commutation. The brush position can be regulated so that
Jan., 1936] D-C. SOURCES FOR REFLECTING ARC 87
it is squarely in the commutating field. This type of generator is
generally understood by the average electrical maintenance man.
Incidentally, it will also carry a heavy overload, should occasion arise,
whereas the drooping characteristic unit is limited to practically its
rated amount.
After a long series of tests using various generator voltages with
corresponding values of series resistance, it was found that a generator
having a very flat volt-ampere characteristic at 42 volts, with suf-
ficient ballast resistance to maintain the proper arc voltage of 35 volts,
would be very stable in operation (Fig. 4). For the best results
from a machine of this type, the design must be such that the com-
mutator ripple is reduced to a minimum, and that the copper load-
ing in the armature, interpole, and series field coils is very low; in
other words, the resistance drops must be practically negligible.
The over-all efficiency from power line to lamp of a constant-voltage
machine of this type when delivering 50 amperes at an arc voltage
of 35 volts is 60 per cent, including the rheostat drop. The power-
factor in the case of single arc loading with one lamp operating is
83 per cent. The inrush of current to the arc when struck, using
the 42-volt generator with a suitable ballast and without auxiliary
equipment, is 95 amperes.
In the investigations of commutator ripple, it was found that when
an armature was used in which the slots were parallel to the armature
shaft, the frequency and magnitude of the ripple were practically inde-
pendent of the number of commutator bars ; that is, an armature with
36 slots, 72 bars, and 72 coils of three turns each gave practically
the same amount of commutator ripple as an armature with 36 slots,
108 bars, and 108 coils of two turns each, the frequency of the ripple
in both cases being identical. When, however, the armature slots
were skewed one slot pitch on the periphery of the armature, the
commutator ripple was reduced very materially and arc noise was
almost entirely eliminated. In fact, unless the surrounding condi-
tions are such that there was absolute quiet, the noise of the arc could
not be heard; whereas quite an audible sound was produced when the
arc was supplied with current by a generator having straight armature
slots. The ripple voltage in the skew slot armature was about one-
eighth of that of the straight slot armature, other conditions being
the same. A feature of the low- voltage machine is that, although the
arc may be susceptible to variations of voltage and current, the
variations are such that the resultant of the several factors remains
88 C. C. DASH
substantially constant, as is evidenced by the practically constant
illumination of the screen.
A-c. line voltage fluctuations have no effect upon the output of
the motor-generator set unless the voltage drops to such a value that
the motor slip is abnormal. This would mean a reduction in a-c. volt-
age of probably 35 or 40 per cent before any perceptible change would
occur. The speed of the rotating parts being maintained practically
constant, resulting in a constant output to the projection lamps, there
is no magnetic connection between the input and the output of the
motor-generator set.
TRENDS IN 16-MM. PROJECTION, WITH SPECIAL
REFERENCE TO SOUND*
A. SHAPIRO**
Summary. — A brief review of the development of 16-mm. sound-film projection
and the possible progress in industrial, educational, and non-theatrical uses.
The purpose of this paper is to review briefly the progress made in
the development of 16-mm. projection, the effect upon it of the intro-
duction of sound, and to determine what trends are discernible in this
rapidly moving industry.
Originating as a hobby for amateurs, 16-mm. films during the
initial period of growth found their largest market in the home field
Despite remarkable developments that projected its utility into
35-mm. domains, in the minds of many who have not followed its prog-
ress closely, 16-mm. motion pictures are still thought of in terms of
imitation rather than as successor to the larger films.
Some five years ago, in an effort to demonstrate the professional
possibilities of 16-mm. pictures, the writer displayed a new projec-
tor at a convention of the Society held at Washington, D. C. It was
pointed out then that the trend of design must give consideration to
the professional rather than to the home field. As indication of this
trend, a picture was projected with the machine that was displayed
that almost filled a theatrical screen 14 feet in width, using only a 250-
watt, 20-volt standard incandescent projection lamp, the projector
being some 70 feet from the screen.
It is of particular interest to review the progress that has been made
since that demonstration. Considering projection only, the most
important improvement has been in illumination. Projection lamp
design has made remarkable progress. Lamps of 1000-watt capacity
are now available for 16-mm. use. Optics and film-moving mecha-
nisms are far more efficient than formerly. Without any substantial
increase in size or weight of equipment, the illumination today has
* Presented at the Spring, 1935, Meeting at Hollywood, Calif.
** Ampro Corp., Chicago, 111.
89
90 A. SHAPIRO [J. S. M. p. E.
definitely reached the auditorium stage. Five years ago, it was a
novelty to project a theatrical-size picture in an auditorium having a
capacity of 500 persons. Today it is commonplace, and numerous
instances can be found where the 16-mm. projector, formerly referred
to as the "little brother of the 35," is being operated in projection
booths in place of the larger equipment.
With this advance in illumination, the field of usefulness of 16-mm.
projection has rapidly increased. Industry, which had long realized
the value of 35-mm. films for sales and business purposes, found the
improved 16-mm. equipment much more convenient than the heavier
and more cumbersome 35-mm. projectors. In education, where ex-
tensive libraries of teaching films had been developed as visual aids,
the 16-mm. equipment was quickly accepted as the more desirable in
view of its lack of fire hazards, lighter weight, and ease of operation.
In non-theatrical fields, such as churches, clubs, lodges, and social
groups, the 16-mm. equipment has increasingly become the favored
standard for auditorium projection.
With the advent of sound, it looked at first as though the 16-mm.
industry had found a real stumbling block. It seemed incredible
that satisfactory sound could be photographed and reproduced on the
16-mm. film, which operated at two-fifths the speed of the 35-mm.
It seemed impossible that the complicated mechanism of sound re-
production could be added in a compact and light-weight portable
form to 16-mm. equipment and at the same time achieve comparable
sound effects.
A short period followed in which the industry was frankly per-
plexed. It tried to effect a compromise by using synchronized disk
records on an attached turntable for the sound. This did not prove
to be a happy solution, and it was soon realized that 16-mm. sound
reproduction would have to march in the footsteps of the 35-mm. with
the sound on the film, just as it did in projection.
Early work with 16-mm. sound-film had not been encouraging
from the standpoint of sound quality. The limitations of film size
and the slower linear speed for light-beam scanning resulted in sub-
stantial losses in 16-mm. sound reproduction as compared to 35-mm.
Radio had set a definite standard for sound quality, and it was gener-
ally conceded that 16-mm. sound would not be satisfactory until it
reached, and preferably exceeded, the quality attainable with radio
reproducers of the best grade.
Meanwhile the revolution that sound had created in the 35-mm.
Jan., 193G] TRENDS IN 16-MM. PROJECTION 91
field had its reverberations in the 16-mm. field. Insistent demands
arose from the industrial, educational, and non-theatrical fields that
16-mm. equipment provide the advantages of sound as well as the
picture. Even the home field became to some extent dissatisfied
with home movies without sound, and home talkies gave promise of
large outlets for the industry.
Happily for 16-mm. movies, progress in sound recording advanced
rapidly. With the advent of high-fidelity recording, with its greatly
enlarged range of frequencies, in combination with great advances in
optical reduction printing, the losses of 16-mm. sound-film became of
lesser significance. Continued improvements finally made it possible
to provide a quality of sound with 16-mm. film comparable to the best
reproduction on high-class radio sets. A frequency range of 50 to
7000 cycles became possible, while output capacities of 15 watts or
more, with negligible distortion, proved adequate for auditorium use.
Where is 16-mm. sound-film most extensively used at the present
time ? It is quite safe to say that industry is by far the largest user.
Such representative large corporations as Chrysler Motors, Fire-
stone Tire & Rubber Company, Portland Cement Company, Hormel
Company, General Motors Corporation, and hundreds of others too
numerous to mention, are utilizing 16-mm. sound for many pur-
poses. It is being used as a sales medium to consumers, as a training
medium for dealers and salesmen, and as an educational medium for
employee instruction. The production of these industrial 16-mm.
sound pictures has become a large industry in itself, and a constantly
increasing supply of film for such purposes is being made.
The educational field, which had already recognized the silent
picture as one of the most valuable aids to visual education, recog-
nizes in the sound picture a still more effective aid. However, the
library of educational sound-films is still relatively small. The educa-
tional field is only awaiting the increasing of this library to take on
16-mm. sound in an extensive way. Even with the present small
library, hundreds of schools are already equipped with 16-mm. sound
projectors in the expectation that sound libraries will quickly and
greatly increase.
The addition of sound to 16-mm. film has given the church, the
club, and other non- theatrical fields a great stimulus. Circulating
libraries of 16-mm. sound-film are now operating in a number of large
cities, and rental rates are but slightly higher than for silent films.
About 1000 subjects of entertainment character are now available,
92 A. SHAPIRO [J. S. M. p. E.
and this number will undoubtedly increase rapidly. This will, in
turn, greatly increase the demand for equipment.
The home talkie field, likewise, is dependent to a considerable
extent upon the further development of suitable libraries of rental
sound-film. The introduction of a 16-mm. sound camera for ama-
teurs has stimulated a corresponding demand for sound projectors.
The higher cost of such equipment, however, has prevented its more
general use. With lower costs, based upon designs particularly
adapted for home use, this field will no doubt broaden considerably.
We come, now, to a consideration of what lies ahead for 16-mm.
sound. We have seen how it quickly outgrew its original limitations,
and with its increased light power, advanced into 35-mm. territory
for industrial, educational, and non-theatrical purposes. In these
fields, it unquestionably has tremendous unexploited possibilities,
but, can it not go farther?
What about the theatrical field? Has 16-mm. projection a destiny
in the thousands of moderate-size theaters? The answers to these
questions seem to depend upon two factors: one, the ability of
16-mm. equipment designers to improve their products further; the
other, the attitude of film producers toward furnishing their releases
on 16-mm. sound-film, so as to enlarge the available entertainment
film library.
The rapid progress made to date in 16-mm. equipment design and
illumination gives every promise that the first factor will be attained.
Already hundreds of performances are daily being given on 16-mm.
equipment to groups up to 1000 persons, showing pictures upon large
screens. In most cases, the audience is hardly aware that the equip-
ment used is not 35-mm. The lamp manufacturers have for some
time given serious consideration to improving the illumination fur-
ther, and experimenting with such lamps will undoubtedly result in a
tremendous gain in 16-mm. illumination. Likewise, sound improve-
ment has already enabled 16-mm. equipment to fill the requirements of
moderate-size theaters.
With regard to the second factor, the producers have so far been
apathetic to releasing prints on 16-mm. sound-film. This has not
only retarded the 16-mm. growth in the theatrical field, but has
hampered the growth in the non-theatrical and other fields requiring
entertainment film. Whatever the reasons for this attitude may be,
it is certainly not justified upon the basis of a comparison of operating
factors between 35- and 16-mm. films.
Jan., 1936] TRENDS IN 10-MM. PROJECTION 93
For example, compare the factor of safety between the two films.
While 35-mm. film of a non-inflammable type can be obtained, by far
the greater amount used is extremely inflammable. Many cities
recognize the fire hazard this provokes, and require fire-proofed
booths for 35-mm. projection. All 16-mm. film is non-inflammable or
slow burning. Its safety has been recognized, so that no restrictions
prevent its use, even in the open. As an instance of this great ad-
vantage, it is cited that in many schools children operate the 16-mm.
equipment. This can hardly be said of 35-mm. film, which has a
definite fire hazard.
Again, the 16-mm. equipment requires no special prolonged train-
ing for competent operation. Again citing the experience in schools,
it is found that such equipment is generally operated by the teachers
or by their pupils. Its small size and weight enable it to be easily
transported, thus encouraging its use in many places. This is a defi-
nite increase in its utility for road shows and circuit entertainments.
Its simplicity results in substantial operating economies.
Another factor that offers an interesting comparison is the cost of
distribution. A 1600-ft. reel of 16-mm. film weighs 5 pounds, and
such a reel can deliver an uninterrupted program lasting 44 minutes.
A 1000-ft. reel of 35-mm. film weighs about 6 pounds and can deliver a.
program lasting only 11 minutes. In other words, the weight of a
similar program is more than four times as great on 35-mm. film as
on 16-mm. film. What a tremendous saving in shipping alone, be-
sides the savings in container, packaging, handling, etc.
Finally, there is the economy of equipment. Not only is 16-mm.
sound equipment far less expensive than 35-mm.; but, in addi-
tion, the theater can very often get along with one 16-mm. projector,
whereas it would require two 35-mm. equipments. Since the 1600-ft.
reel of 16-mm. film can deliver a program equal to that of four 35-mm.
reels, the projector need be re-threaded only once during an eight-reel
program. This is not objectionable in the smaller houses, which, with
35-mm. film, would require two projectors; otherwise, there would
be seven interruptions in an eight-reel program.
These considerations of lower costs are of vital importance to large
numbers of the smaller theaters located in outlying sections. Their
operating expenses have become disproportionate to their reduced in-
comes, forcing a number to close. In spite of considerable improve-
ment in the theater business, some 3000 small houses are still closed.
In many cases, the lower cost of 16-mm. sound-film would enable
94 A. SHAPIRO
such theaters to reopen upon a profitable basis. This, in turn, would
increase the revenue of the film producers, who are now limited as to
the number of theaters that can profitably take their releases.
To summarize, it would appear that the immediate expansion of
the 16-mm. sound market lies in industry, education, and non-theatri-
cal fields. Film sources to supply these fields are growing rapidly.
Industrial film producers are increasing their 16-mm. sound produc-
tions, several universities are producing 16-mm. sound educational
pictures, and entertainment libraries are growing to supply the non-
theatrical and home fields.
The future trend, with regard to the smaller theaters, is problemati-
cal. It will require producer cooperation as well as improved equip-
ment design. With such cooperation, the smaller theaters with
capacities of approximately 600 persons and screens about 18 feet in
width, which represent about 70 per cent of the total theaters in this
country, can operate upon a more profitable basis than by using
35-mm. sound-film.
All indications point, however, to the trend of 16-mm. sound to-
ward professional pursuits. It has outgrown the home field as a
major outlet. It is destined more and more to be used as a tool for
industry, as an effective aid for education, and as a flexible medium
for cultural and recreational activities.
SYMPOSIUM ON NEW MOTION PICTURE APPARATUS
A WIDE-RANGE STUDIO SPOT LAMP FOR USE WITH 2000-WATT
FILAMENT GLOBES*
E. C. RICHARDSON**
During the Spring Convention at Hollywood, Calif., May 20-24, 1935, a sympo-
sium on new motion picture apparatus was held, in which various manufacturers of
equipment described and demonstrated their new products and developments. Some
of this equipment is described in the following pages; the remainder will be published
in subsequent issues of the Journal.
In the motion picture studios there are a number of lamps that may be classified
under the general term of "spot lamp." For the purpose of this paper, this
classification may be divided into two groups, i. e., the condenser type and the
reflector type. The condenser type embodies a source of illumination, the light
from which is collected by means of a single condensing lens, usually of the plano-
convex form, and means are provided for focusing the light-source in relation
to the lens in order to vary the divergence of the projected beam. The ratings of
these lamps range from 250 to 2000 watts, utilizing filament globes; and, in
carbon arc equipment, from 35 to 115 amperes.
In the group of lamps designated as the reflector type will be found the lamps
embodying light-sources in combination with glass or metal reflectors, usually
of the paraboloid form. It is the present practice of the motion picture studios
to use lamps of the reflector type provided with incandescent globes, with re-
flectors ranging in diameter from 18 to 36 inches. Carbon arc equipment of the
reflector type includes the Sun arcs, the majority of which have reflectors 24 or
36 inches in diameter, although one major studio employs several Sun arcs using
60-inch reflectors.
The characteristic common to both the previously mentioned groups is that they
may be used to project a beam of light, the divergence of which may be varied
from a narrow angle, for the "spot," to an angle sufficiently wide to "flood" a
considerable area. By altering the angle of divergence of the projected light-
beam, the area covered by the beam and the intensity within the beam may be
increased or decreased according to requirements.
In attempting to improve any product three considerations come to one's
attention: first, the incapacity of the existing product to meet the demands im-
* Presented at the Spring, 1935, Meeting at Hollywood, Calif.
** Mole-Richardson, Inc., Hollywood, Calif.
95
96
APPARATUS SYMPOSIUM
[J. S. M. P. E.
posed upon it; second, the extension of the usefulness of the product into new
fields of use ; and, third, increasing the efficiency of the product itself.
The lamp under consideration in this
paper — the MR Type 210 Junior Solarspot,
shown in Fig. 1 — has been designed to
function primarily as a spot lamp for use
in photographing motion pictures. It is
not an adaptation of equipment used in
another field of illumination, but embodies
in its design characteristics for overcoming
the inability of existing equipment to fulfill
the demands imposed upon it and provides
a control of the light-beam that widens the
utility of the lamp as a tool of the cinema-
tographer. The advantages achieved in this
design have been largely effected by more
efficiently utilizing the light from the 2000-
watt G48 CIS bipost type of filament globe
used in this equipment as the light-source.
Spot lamps of the condenser type have the
advantage of good control over the projected
beam. Using a 2000-watt lamp as the
source, the beam can be converged to an
angle of 8 degrees and flooded out to an
angle as great as 45 degrees, although
at such wide divergence the intensity of
illumination is low. The disadvantage of
spot lamps using the tungsten filament
globes is their inefficient utilization of the
light.
The power radiated by the 2000-watt globe
is nearly 3 hp., a considerable portion of which is radiated at wavelengths lying
below the visible range. That is to say, in other words, that the 2000-watl
lamp radiates a lot of heat. The amount of heat radiated is such that even
FIG. 1. MR Type 210,
Junior Solarspot.
FIG. 2. Construction of typical 2000-watt condenser
type studio spot.
Jan., 1936]
APPARATUS SYMPOSIUM
97
though plano-convex lenses are made of heat-resisting glass, their size in prac-
tical application, and to prevent excessive breakage, seems to be limited to a
diameter of 8 inches and a focal length of 15 inches.
TOY
FIG. 3. Intensity distribution of condenser type spot
lamp, with 8-inch diameter, 15-inch focus condenser;
source: 120-volt, 2000-watt, G-48 bipost incandescent
lamp.
Fig. 2 illustrates the layout of a typical 2000-watt condenser type studio spot.
Behind the globe is a spherical mirror which is used to collect the light that would
otherwise be unprojected and to reflect it so as to form an image between the coils
of the filament grid. Tests reveal
that when such a mirror is used in the
combination shown in Fig. 2, good ad-
justment will increase the intensity of
the beam by approximately 60-75 per
cent above that afforded by a globe
without such a reflector. With a beam
divergence of 8 degrees in the spot lamp
illustrated, it is possible to effect such
a collection of direct and reflected light
upon the condenser lens of only 32 de-
grees. When such a combination is
used for flooding, with a beam diver-
gence of 45 degrees, the angle of the
collected light is increased to 71 de-
grees, but the intensity of the beam is
so low that it is not of great photo-
graphic use. Fig. 3 shows the angular
distribution of candle-power from a
2000-watt studio spot for beam divergences of 8, 18, 30, and 44 degrees.
The inherent fault of the condenser type of spot lamp for use with high-wattage
globes is its incapacity to collect a large proportion of the light emitted by the
FIG. 4. Reflector type of lamp
equipped with parabolic mirror,
showing angles of collection for spot
and flood positions.
98
APPARATUS SYMPOSIUM
[J. S. M. p. E.
source. Short-focus, wide-aperture condenser lenses would correct the difficulty;
but for the plano-convex type of condenser, lenses of suitable focal length would
be so thick as to cause great losses in transmission, and the breakage hazard,
which is now rather objectionable, would be greatly increased due to the thickness
of the lenses.
ANGLE OF DIVERGENCE
4 O 4 6 12 16
FIG. 5. Intensity distribution of reflec-
tor type of spot lamp, with 18-inch para-
bolic reflector and spill ring; source: 120-
volt, 2000-watt, G48 bipost incandescent
lamp.
The reflector types of lamp have the advantage over the previously described
condenser spot lamps of collecting from the source a larger angle of light. A
schematic drawing of a lamp equipped with a parabolic mirror 18 inches in diame-
ter and having a focal length of 77/8 inches is shown in Fig. 4. The layout shows
the lamp adjusted for a narrower beam of 8 degrees, in which case light within an
Jan., 1936]
APPARATUS SYMPOSIUM
99
angle of 121 degrees is collected from
the bulb. The dotted lines show the
position when the light is flooded to
an angle of 24 degrees, in which case
the angle of collection of the mirror is
110 degrees. All the light from the
front of the globe is lost, since, with
the super-speed film in present use, it is
necessary to apply spill rings to prevent
any unprojected light from falling upon
the set that may cause overexposure.
This optical combination is most effec-
tive for narrow beam divergences in the
lamps using 2000-watt, G48 CIS globes FlQ 6 Showing angles of collec.
as the source. tion of light in the 18-inch Sunspot
Lamps of this type will spot down to lamp equipped with mirror,
a divergence of 8 degrees without pro-
jecting filament images that are seriously objectionable. When such narrow di-
AHGLE OF DIVERGENCE
8 4- O A 8 12
FIG. 7. Intensity distribution of reflector type
of spot lamp with 18-inch aplanatic metal reflector and
spill ring; source: 120- volt, 2000-watt, CIS bipost in-
candescent lamp.
100
APPARATUS SYMPOSIUM
[J. S. M. p. E.
vergences are required, lamps of this type are most effective; but the effective-
ness is lost when they are flooded due to the characteristics of the parabolic reflec-
tors. When the source is placed inside the focus of the reflector the intensity at
and near the center of the beam drops much more rapidly than at the edges of the
beam. This condition begins as soon as the globe is moved in from the focal point,
and becomes more and more pronounced as the divergence increases; until,
when the divergence is great enough, the projected light forms a "doughnut,"
which has no illuminating value in motion picture photography. Diffus-
ing mediums can correct the bad distribution somewhat, but at the expense of
much loss of illumination. Fig. 5 shows the intensity distribution of this type
of equipment for divergences of 8, 16, and 20 degrees.
To overcome this fault of the parabolic mirror when used for projecting other
than narrow beams, there are in use in the motion picture industry stamped metal
FIG. 8. MR 210 Junior Solarspot lamp, equipped
with concentric plano-convex Fresnel lens.
mirrors, the curvature of which is primarily parabolic, but having a plurality of
facets. This type of mirror design injects an element of diffusion which im-
proves the distribution of intensity in the projected beam. Fig. 6 shows an 18-
inch Sun spot in which such a mirror is installed, and the angle of collection of the
light. For the 14-degree divergence the angle of collection is 130 degrees, and
for the 24-degree flood position it is 124 degrees. While mirrors of this design
may be constructed from a number of small pieces of glass, a form of reflector
frequently used in Europe, such construction is not, in our opinion, satisfactory.
The amount of handwork involved in producing such a reflector in our country
would make its cost prohibitive. Such reflectors have always tended to deterio-
rate rapidly, the silver peeling at the edges of the facets. The faceted metal
mirrors used in the Hollywood studios are finished to a high degree, and are chro-
mium plated. Their reflectivity is, of course, limited by the reflectivity of the
chromium-plated surface. Their particular virtue is the smoothness of distribu-
Jan.,
APPARATUS SYMPOSIUM
101
lion, for divergences from 14 to 24 degrees. The angular distribution of an 18-
inch Sun spot employing a faceted metal mirror and a 2000-watt G48 CIS Mazda
globe is shown in Fig. 7 for angles of 14 (the narrowest divergence), 18, 24, and 30
degrees.
In the motion picture industry it is seldom necessary to project a spot beam
narrower than 10 degrees, which provides a spot of light about eight feet in diame-
ter at a distance of fifty feet. It is, however, desirable to be able to flood a lamp
to a divergence as great as 40 degrees, provided that the projected beam at this
FIG. 9. Intensity distribution of Junior Solarspot;
source: 120-volt, 2000-watt, G48 CIS bipost incandes-
cent lamp.
wide angle is of sufficient intensity to be of photographic use. For the conditions
under which spot lamps are used, it is desirable that the beam have its highest
intensity at the center and that the edges be soft so as to permit overlapping
the beams of several such lamps without building up high intensities in the areas
overlapped.
The MR Type 210 Junior Solarspot lamp, illustrated in Fig. 8, is supplied with a
lens of the type known as the concentric plano-convex Fresnel. A lens of this
type can be made quite large in diameter, of short focal length, and of relatively
102 APPARATUS SYMPOSIUM [j. s. M. P. E.
thin section. This lens was designed particularly to fulfill the requirements of
the Junior Solarspot; and when used in combination with a 2000-watt G48 Cl3
Mazda globe will project a spot beam having a divergence of 8 degrees, and a flood
beam of 44 degrees. The lens is manufactured of a superior, heat-resisting glass
of high mechanical strength. Referring to Fig. 8, at the rear of the globe is pro-
vided a spherical mirror of the proper radius and aperture diameter, provided
with two simple adjustments. This lamp utilizes a 2000-watt G48 CIS bipost
Mazda globe. Such globes are, by their nature, virtually prefocusing; and
when once the adjustments in the lamp are set, globes may be mounted or dis-
mounted, and only slight readjustments of the spherical mirror are required to
attain high efficiency of projection. The wide-aperture, short-focus lenses permit
combined collection of the radiation from the globe and the spherical mirror
within an angle of 74 degrees in the position for an 8-degree divergence, and of 104
degrees when the lamp is used in its maximum flood position for a divergence of
44 degrees. The short-focus Fresnel lens contributes to the over-all efficiency of
the unit, but only careful attention to the design of the lens has made possible the
excellent distribution provided by the equipment over a wide range of beam
divergence.
Fig. 9 shows the angular distribution of the Junior Solarspot for beam diver-
gences of 8, 18, 24, 30, and 40 degrees. It will be noted that the wide range of
distribution and the degree of intensity attained by this new equipment adapts it
to a wide range of use in motion picture photography. For instance, with this
lamp a person may be covered from head to foot at a distance of ten feet. A
spot that can be flooded to this degree and to such an intensity makes a very use-
ful lamp for general lighting. The fact that the projected spot at all times has
soft diffusing edges permitting areas to be overlapped without showing rings or
bands of lights, especially adapts it to back-lighting; and the wide range of in-
tensity within the various beams is particularly advantageous for such purposes.
Much experimentation has been done with an iris shutter applied to the lamp.
By closing the iris and adjusting the focus of the lamp, a wide range of intensity
may be attained for a given beam divergence for any type of photography de-
manding that the spectral composition be maintained constant, as for color
photography. Control of intensity by an iris is most desirable, in avoiding the
use of diffusing screens which have the characteristic of absorbing certain wave-
lengths and otherwise causing spectral imbalance.
AN AUTOMATIC DAYLIGHT CONTINUOUS 35-MM.
PROJECTION MACHINE*
A. B. SCOTT**
The S. C. K. projector (Fig. 10) is intended for continuous projection from a
large loop of film during long periods of time. The machine is equipped with a
single magazine into which is built the non-rewind device. Pictures may be pro-
* Presented at the Spring, 1935, Meeting at Hollywood, Calif.
** S. C. K. Corporation, Hollywood, Calif.
Jan., 1936]
APPARATUS SYMPOSIUM
103
jected upon a reflecting screen in the usual way or upon a translucent sand blown
glass screen. For the latter type of projection the various elements in the sound
reproduction system can be rearranged in thirty-five seconds. The machine is
provided with an automatic cut-off, which, in case the film breaks, stops all mov-
ing parts as well as the light and the sound, before the film travels eight frames.
The average film is worn badly when it has been shown a maximum of 125
times under ordinary projection conditions, due to three principal factors, namely
scratches resulting from the imperceptible slippage and friction of the film, ex-
cessive heating, and finally, wear on the perforations. In this machine, slippage
FIG. 10. S. C. K. automatic daylight continuous, 35-mm.
projector.
and friction are minimized. When the machine is going at the full speed of 90
feet per minute, it is possible to put a finger between any two layers of the film .
Heating is lessened by a special fan which draws the heat out of the projection
chamber and blows a cooling draft of air upon the film after it passes through the
projection chamber and before it is rewound. Wear and tear of the perforations
at the intermittent movement are completely eliminated, as no sprocket of any
kind is used. These three unique patented features make it possible to keep ordi-
nary film in excellent condition for a minimum of three thousand showings.
This machine is manufactured with a single picture projecting head or with a
104 APPARATUS SYMPOSIUM [j. s. M. p. E.
triple head. This triple-head automatic machine can be used on the marquee of
a theater for projecting trailers on three screens simultaneously, so that they are
visible from any direction. If there is any excuse for trailers it is to have them on
the outside of the theater to induce people to enter, and not to bore them after
they have paid their admission.
By another very simple device attached to the three-head machine, two trailers
can be run, with an automatic sign telling the public which picture is being shown
at the present time and which is the coming attraction.
THE VITACHROME DIFFUSIONLITE SYSTEM AND ITS APPLICATION*
A. C. JENKING**
The "Diffusionlite system," the term applied to this form of illumination,
was discovered more or less accidentally after repeated efforts to get away from
the use of expensive condensers or diffusers during a long period of years of con-
structing large projecting and enlarging cameras. It was found that by using a
mirror at the front of the lamp and projecting all the light upon an electrolytically
treated aluminum surface the result was excellent. The light reflected from the
myriads of microscopic brilliant facets formed a beam of illumination that was
uniform, well distributed, and without perceptible "spot" or "center" or figura-
tion, yet remarkable in its brilliancy and penetration. The resulting enlarge-
ments were more beautiful than any we had produced before. This led us to
seek a means of employing the same principle for studio lighting. An object
could then be photographed with a perfectly diffused light without having to
interpose glass or silk screens and thus lose considerable brilliancy.
Fig. 11 shows the 500-watt PS-40 lamp, which, at the proper voltage, has a life
of 1000 hours. Upon the bulb is deposited, by evaporation, a metallic reflecting
surface of high efficiency. The mirror-coated area is calculated to have just the
right diameter and curvature and, owing to the thinness of the glass, is to all
purposes a front-surface mirror, throwing directly upon the reflector uniform
illumination without "hot-spot," rings or images of the filament. The tests of
these mirrors show a reflection coefficient greater than 80 per cent.
It was only after many experiments and tests that the process was brought
to a point where the mirrors could be guaranteed to stay upon the bulbs and
retain their full reflection characteristics for the entire life of the lamps. These
requirements have been met even in the case of the 2-kw. lamps used in the spots.
The brick-colored coating upon the outside surface is a refractory material,
placed there to protect the mirror which is so thin that it can be measured only
by optical means.
The lamp bulb is hung in the housing so that no direct rays escape. The mir-
ror reflects back all the forward rays, and thus all rays emitted from the filament
*Presented at the Spring, 1935, Meeting at Hollywood, Calif.
**Vitachrome, Inc., Los Angeles, Calif.
Jan., 1936] APPARATUS SYMPOSIUM 105
are diffused by reflection from the countless facets of the electrolytically treated
bowl. The curvature of the diffusion bowl has been carefully calculated to gain
a high degree of efficiency and to avoid entrapping any light. Tests have shown
that excellent diffusion is attained with a loss of only 5 or 6 per cent of light.
There is a definite improvement in the brilliancy, without glare or "burning"
the picture. The 500- watt model has the greatest general use in all fields of
photography as well as motion pictures, in which this size is not used for close-
Fig. 11. 500- watt, PS-40 lamp with metallic reflecting
surface deposited upon bulb; collapsible telescopic stand
and angle adjustment.
ups or key lighting. The 2000-watt lamp is designed for general lighting of larger
sets. Both lamps are otherwise patterned alike, and have been especially designed
and built from the base up for their purpose.
The 500-watt model, while very sturdily built, is extremely light, weighing
only 22 pounds. It can be disassembled very quickly by removing the telescopic
stem from the castered tripod base. A half dozen of such lamps can then easily
be stowed in the rear of a Ford coupe. A frictionally held joint is incorporated
between the bottom of the hood and top of the supporting stem, permitting bend-
106 APPARATUS SYMPOSIUM
ing the lamp backward or forward into any position, without having to adjust
set-screws, etc. A ten-step rheostat is constructed within the hood of each lamp.
This dimmer eliminates the necessity of screens for reducing the light-intensity.
It is durably built and will last indefinitely, working quietly and smoothly.
In order to demonstrate the various properties of the lamp, it may be projected
upon a screen. If an object is placed immediately in front of the lamp, no per-
ceptible shadow is cast; and as the object is moved toward the screen, a very
indefinite shadow begins to form without at any time becoming a hard shadow
unless the object is right up against the screen.
The lamp provides admirable modeling light, with good diffusion and softness,
coupled with a penetrating, sparkling brilliancy that may be appreciated by look-
ing directly into it. The light is easy on the eyes, because there is no direct ray.
SOCIETY ANNOUNCEMENTS
ATLANTIC COAST SECTION
The regular monthly meeting of the Section, held on November 13th, at
Public School No. 11, New York, N. Y., was well attended, and indicated the
extent to which interest in motion pictures for educational purposes is being
shown in the New York area. Miss R. Hochheimer acted as Chairlady of the
evening, introducing as speakers Dr. J. M. Sheehan, Assistant Superintendent
of New York Schools, Mrs. J. H. Kohan, Vice-President of the United Parents
Association, and Dr. Albert Brand, of Cornell University. A number of pictures
were projected illustrating the nature of the subjects used and the technic fol-
lowed in visual instruction in the classroom.
As the result of the recent elections, the officers of the Section for the year
1936 will be as follows:
L. W. DAVEE, Chairman
D. E. HYNDMAN, Sec.-Treas. M. C. BATSEL, Manager
H. GRIFFIN, Manager
MID-WEST SECTION
At a meeting held on November 21st at the Electrical Association, Chicago,
111., Mr. H. A. DeVry presented a paper on the subject of "Science Involved in
a Film Reel." The meeting was well attended, and after the discussion of Mr.
DeVry's paper, the results of the election of officers of the Section for 1936 were
announced as follows:
C. H. STONE, Chairman
S. A. LUKES, Sec.-Treas. O. B. DEPUE, Manager
B. E. STECHBART, Manager
PACIFIC COAST SECTION
At a meeting held on October 4th at the Pathe Studio, Hollywood, a pres-
entation on the subject of lighting equipment was given by Mr. P. Mole, fol-
lowed by an additional paper on the same subject, but with special reference to
the performance of incandescent lamps and their applications, by Mr. R. G.
Linderman. Mr. E. Huse spoke on the subject of "Practical Applications of
the New Pola Screens in Cinematography." Several reels of films shot with
the Pola Screens by cameramen of Hollywood were projected, illustrating very
effectively the action of the screens.
107
108 SOCIETY ANNOUNCEMENTS
STANDARDS COMMITTEE
At a meeting held at the Hotel Pennsylvania, New York, N. Y., on December
4th, extensive consideration was given to the subject of revising the Standards
Booklet on the basis of suggestions and criticisms made during the past six
months or so and particularly in connection with Mr. G. Friedl's visit to Europe
in the interest of 16-mm. sound-film standardization.
In addition, in view of the confusion that might result from the fact that there
will exist in commercial use two nominal lengths of film, namely, 1000 and 2000
feet, the application of the word reel should be restricted only to the metal appli-
ance upon which the film is wound. In other words, a reel of film should no
longer be defined as "approximately 1000 feet of film," and the Committee
formally took action to delete that definition from the Glossary of the Society.
Voting ballots are being mailed to the Members of the Committee for their
action upon this, as well as upon the question of formally adopting the 2000-ft.
length of film as an additional standard.
SOCIETY SUPPLIES
Reprints of Standards of the SMPE and Recommended Practice may be obtained
from the General Office of the Society at the price of twenty-five cents each.
Copies of Aims and Accomplishments, an index of the Transactions from Octo-
ber, 1916, to June, 1930, containing summaries of all the articles, and author and
classified indexes, may be obtained from the General Office at the price of one
dollar each. Only a limited number of copies remains.
Certificates of Membership may be obtained from the General Office by all
members for the price of one dollar. Lapel buttons of the Society's insignia are
also available at the same price.
Black fabrikoid binders, lettered in gold, designed to hold a year's supply of the
JOURNAL, may be obtained from the General Office for two dollars each. The
purchaser's name and the volume number may be lettered in gold upon the back-
bone of the binder at an additional charge of fifty cents each.
Requests for any of these supplies should be directed to the General Office of
the Society at the Hotel Pennsylvania, New York, N. Y., accompanied by the
appropriate remittance.
JOURNAL
OF THE SOCIETY OF
MOTION PICTURE ENGINEERS
Volume XXVI FEBRUARY, 1936 Number 2
CONTENTS
Page
A New Method of Increasing the Volume Range of Talking
Motion Pictures N. LEVINSON 111
Mechanical Reversed-Bias Light- Valve Recording
E. H. HANSEN AND C. W. FAULKNER 117
The Motion Picture Theater Shape and Effective Visual Re-
ception B. SCHLANGER 128
Elimination of Splice Noise in Sound-Film. . . .E. I. SPONABLE 136
Principles of Measurements of Room Acoustics. . . E. C. WENTE 145
Servicing Sound Motion Picture Reproducing Equipment. . . .
C. C. AIKEN 154
Visual Accompaniment R. WOLF 158
The Use of Films in the U. S. Army M. E. GILLETTE 173
Motion Pictures in the Army Air Corps. . . .G. W. GODDARD 183
Note on the Measurement of Photographic Densities with the
Barrier Type of Photocell B. C. HIATT AND C. TUTTLE 195
Motion Picture Film Processing Laboratories in Great Britain
I. D. WRATTEN 204
Spring Convention at Chicago, 111.— April 27-30, 1936 216
Society Announcements 220
JOURNAL
OF THE SOCIETY OF
MOTION PICTURE ENGINEERS
SYLVAN HARRIS, EDITOR
Board of Editors
J. I. CRABTREE, Chairman
O. M. GLUNT A. C. HARDY L. A. JONES
G. E. MATTHEWS
Subscription to non-members, $8.00 per annum; to members, $5.00 per annum,
included in their annual membership dues; single copies, $1.00. A discount
on subscriptions or single copies of 15 per cent is allowed to accredited agencies.
Order from the Society of Motion Picture Engineers, Inc., 20th and Northampton
Sts., Easton, Pa., or Hotel Pennsylvania, New York, N. Y.
Published monthly at Easton, Pa., by the Society of Motion Picture Engineers.
Publication Office, 20th & Northampton Sts., Easton, Pa.
General and Editorial Office, Hotel Pennsylvania, New York, N. Y.
Entered as second class matter January 15, 1930, at the Post Office at Easton,
Pa., under the Act of March 3, 1879. Copyrighted, 1936, by the Society of
Motion Picture Engineers, Inc.
Papers appearing in this Journal may be reprinted, abstracted, or abridged
provided credit is given to the Journal of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers
and to the author, or authors, of the papers in question. Exact reference as to
the volume, number, and page of the Journal must be given. The Society is
not responsible for statements made by authors.
Officers of the Society
President: HOMER G. TASKER, 3711 Rowland Ave., Burbank, Calif.
Past-President: ALFRED N. GOLDSMITH, 444 Madison Ave., New York, N. Y.
Executive Vice-President: SIDNEY K. WOLF, 250 W. 57th St., New York, N. Y.
Engineering Vice-President: LOYD A. JONES, Kodak Park, Rochester, N. Y.
Editorial Vice-President: JOHN I. CRABTREE, Kodak Park, Rochester, N. Y.
Financial Vice-President: OMER M. GLUNT, 463 West St., New York, N. Y.
Convention Vice-President: WILLIAM C. KUNZMANN, Box 6087, Cleveland, Ohio.
Secretary: JOHN H. KURLANDER, 2 Clearfield Ave., Bloomfield, N. J.
Treasurer: TIMOTHY E. SHEA, 463 West St., New York, N. Y.
Governors
MAX C. BATSEL, Front & Market Sts., Camden, N. J.
LAWRENCE W. DAVEE, 250 W. 57th St., New York, N. Y.
ARTHUR S. DICKINSON, 28 W. 44th St., New York, N. Y.
HERBERT GRIFFIN, 90 Gold St., New York, N. Y.
ARTHUR C. HARDY, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Mass.
EMERY HUSE, 6706 Santa Monica Blvd., Hollywood, Calif.
GERALD F. RACKETT, 823 N. Seward St., Hollywood, Calif.
CARRINGTON H. STONE, 205 W. Wacker Drive, Chicago, 111.
A NEW METHOD OF INCREASING THE VOLUME RANGE
OF TALKING MOTION PICTURES*
N. LEVINSON'
Summary. — Lack of adequate volume range is one of the greatest liandicaps to
achieving greater realism in sound motion pictures. A method of intercutting vari-
able-density and variable-width recordings is described which results in an 8-db. in-
crease in effective volume range.
One of the chief handicaps toward achieving greater realism in talk-
ing motion pictures is the lack of an adequate volume range to repro-
duce faithfully the wide variations that occur in dialog and music.
The volume difference between the surface noise of the average film
record and the maximum signal that can be reproduced from such a
record is about 40 decibels. This range is inadequate for recording the
gradations of volume required for dialog and is entirely inadequate
for the proper dramatic presentation of music.
Due to this limitation of range it is necessary to record upon film at
a normal dialog level only 8 or 10 decibels below 100 per cent modula-
tion of the recording device. This allows an increase of only 10
decibels in volume for scenes in which shouting takes place, and also
for the opening and closing title music of a picture or a high- volume
singing sequence. If the recording level is dropped in order to gain a
greater range for these sounds, then the film surface noise becomes ob-
jectionable in the normal dialog recordings.
To illustrate the point, assume a volume range of 40 decibels for a
good film recording using 10-db. noise reduction. If the modulation
level for normal dialog is 10 decibels below 100 per cent modulation,
the film surface noise in the theater will be only 30 decibels below the
dialog level. The surface noise from films recorded in this manner is
usually not objectionable in the average theater, as it is just masked
by the audience and the theater noise. If, however, the normal
modulation is reduced to a level, say, 15 decibels below 100 per cent
* Presented at the Fall, 1935, Meeting at Washington, D. C.
** Warner Bros.-First National Studios, Burbank, Calif.
Ill
112 N. LEVTNSON [j. S. M. p. E.
modulation, then the gain of the theater amplifier must be increased
5 decibels for the same effective acoustic level of the dialog. The
acoustic level of the surface noise is likewise increased 5 decibels so
that it is only 25 decibels below the normal speech level. It is no
longer masked by theater and audience noise, and becomes very ob-
jectionable in the average theater.
Thus the elimination of surface noise in normal speech recordings
requires that the speech be recorded at such a high percentage of
modulation that no leeway in volume range remains for recording
speech and music that require additional range for the best dramatic
effect.
One method of increasing the apparent volume range of variable -
density recordings is the so-called "squeeze track." In this method
of recording, the normal dialog track is, for example, only one-half the
maximum width allowable on the release print. Loud musical se-
quences are released on the full width of the sound-track, with a re-
sultant increase in level of 6 decibels. This method is very effective
but, unfortunately, when the track is reduced to one-half the width,
the level of the signal is reduced by 6 decibels but the film surface
noise is reduced by only 3 decibels. This is due to the random
nature of the film background noises which, therefore, must be
added vectorially, with a resultant change proportional to the square-
root of the change in width of the track. Thus we gain in this
method of recording an effective increase in volume range of 3
decibels, assuming that the surface noise for the normal dialog, or
during periods of no sound, is held at a constant level. Greater
increases in volume range are possible but this example illustrates
the current commercial practice.
Another method in general use of increasing the volume range of
film recordings is that of increasing the transmission of variable-
density sound-track during periods when high volumes are required.
It is general practice, at present, to maintain an unmodulated visual
diffuse print transmission for variable-density recordings of approxi-
mately 20 per cent, this value of print transmission resulting in mini-
mum distortion and most pleasant reproduction of the recorded
sound. As is well known, the output level of a variable-density
record varies with the print transmission; so if it is desired to reduce
the output level, the print may be darkened, or if it is desired to in-
crease the output level, the print may be lightened. Such a change
in print transmission is accompanied by a change of quality that is
Feb., 1936] INCREASING THE VOLUME RANGE 113
quite small, within the limits of, say, 16 to 30 per cent transmission.
When the print transmission is changed beyond these points, however,
the quality begins to suffer.
The method described above is widely used to increase the effective
volume range of film recordings. Opening title music may be printed
for a visual print transmission of, say, 40 per cent, with the result that
when reproduced in the theater it is 7.8 decibels louder than the nor-
mal dialog. Since the surface noise is objectionable only during
periods of low modulation or no modulation, this procedure of increas-
ing the print transmission increases the effective volume range of film
recordings by approximately 6 decibels. Any impairment of sound
quality that may result in order to attain the loudness required is
more than compensated by the increased effectiveness and dramatic
value of the sound.
The method to be described in this paper not only achieves this in-
crease in volume range, but it does so without the slightest impair-
ment in quality. It is accomplished by intercutting variable-density
recordings with variable-width recordings; variable-density record-
ings being used when normal volume is required, and variable-width
when high volumes are required.
The unmodulated portion of a variable-width recording consists of
a sound-track, one half of which is opaque and the other half trans-
parent. Its normal unmodulated transmission, therefore, is approxi-
mately 50 per cent, or 2*/2 times the optimal unmodulated transmis-
sion for variable-density track. This difference in unmodulated
transmission results in producing a variable-width track of the same
percentage of modulation at a level approximately 8 decibels higher
than that of the variable-density track when run on the same repro-
ducing system with the same gain. Thus, by intercutting variable-
density and variable- width recordings, an extension of the range of
8 decibels is provided, without changing the fader setting, for the
most effective and dramatic reproduction of sound.
This idea has been found to be very practicable, and of great value
in dramatic and musical sequences. It has been further enhanced by
intercutting "squeeze track" and variable-width track, with a re-
sultant 11-db. increase in maximum volume for the same noise level in
the theater.
The release of such prints has demonstrated that many theaters are
equipped with power amplifiers of inadequate capacity for handling
the increased volume range. Before the full possibilities of the sys-
114 N. LEVINSON [J. S. M. p. E.
tern can be realized, additional amplifier capacity must be provided in
these theaters or more efficient loud speakers must be developed. In
spite of the inadequacy of theater equipment, the system has shown
itself to have great possibilities for enhancing the realism and natural-
ness of sound pictures.
APPENDIX
The ratio between the output of a variable-density sound-track of 20 per cent
visual diffuse transmission and a variable-width track of the same percentage of
modulation, when reproduced with the same gain, is derived as follows:
Variable-Width Recording
Standard width of track 0.070 inch
Diffuse density of opaque portion 1.3
Projection density of opaque portion 1.3 X 1.3 = 1.69
Projected transmission density of opaque portion 2.04 per cent
Diffuse density of transparent portion 0.06
Projection density of transparent portion 0.078
Projected transmission density of transparent portion 83.4 per cent
Percentage change in projected transmission for 50 per cent
modulation: (83.4-2.04) X 0.50 40.68
40.68 X 0.070 X K ( = Intensity of illumination X height of
slit) 2.85K modulated
light flux output
Variable-Density Recording
Standard theater reproducing aperture 0.084 inch
Mean diffuse density of print (20 per cent transmission) 0.70
Mean projection density of print (20 per cent transmission) 0.91
Mean projection transmission density of print (20 per cent
transmission) 12.3 per cent
Variable-Density Recording
(For 50 Per Cent Modulation)
Maximum projected transmission of print 18.45 per cent
Minimum projected transmission of print 6.15 per cent
Percentage change in projected transmission for 50 per cent 12.3 per cent
modulation: (18.45-6.16) X 0.084 X K 1.032K
2.85 K (variable-width track output) 2.76
1.032 K (variable-density track output)
20 log 2.76 = ratio of loudness of variable-width track to
variable-density track of the same percentage of modu-
lation 8.8 decibels
Feb., 1936] INCREASING THE VOLUME RANGE 115
DISCUSSION
MR. FRANK: One of the producers is releasing, or has in the past released, pic-
tures in two different types of release print, a Class A print and a Class B print,
one of which had an increased volume range. Do other producers, or does the
industry as a whole, intend to release regular pictures in two different kinds of
print, one the standard release print to be used on equipment such as we now find
in the theaters in general, and the other only where adequate reserve power is
available?
CHAIRMAN FRAYNE : I believe the studio to which you refer is Metro-Gold wyn-
Mayer, and that was in connection with the musical, Naughty Marietta. The
studio, at the time, attempted to turn out two different prints, on a trial basis, but
the experiment was not quite successful because of confusion at the exchanges,
and because of the objections of some houses to receiving Class B prints. I have
not heard of any other studio contemplating such a device at the present time, at
least so far as getting different volume outputs from film is concerned.
MR. FRANK: Is it the intent, then, of Warner Bros., for instance, to release
pictures, particularly those with musical selections, under the new system, without
regard for the theater that does not have adequate reserve power?
PRESIDENT TASKER: I do not know whether I can speak for the West Coast
studio, but I should imply from this paper and from conversations with Major
Levinson that it was intended to make use of the increased volume range, whether
or not the theater was capable of taking advantage of it.
CHAIRMAN FRAYNE: The question as to what volume range we actually get
from variable-density track is very much undecided. It depends a good deal upon
who makes the measurement, and I believe in order to facilitate matters we ought
to have a definition of what we mean by signal-to-noise, or volume range, of a film.
If we define volume range as the difference in output between a fully modulated
1000-cycle signal and the noise level of the unmodulated track, then actual mea
surements indicate that a volume range of approximately 40 decibels without any
noise reduction can be obtained from average film processing. If we refer to the
average mixing level, assumed to be, say, 10 decibels below clash, then, of course,
that figure drops to 30 decibels. But since recording practices vary a great deal,
it would seem that the former definition of volume range should be given more
weight. As to the 8-db. increase in output of the variable-width over the variable-
density track, this is theoretically correct, based upon the average transmission of
variable- width track and the average transmission of variable-density track.
MR. EVANS: The question of volume range and noise level has come up before
the Sound Committee, and attempts have been made, without much result, to
define what was meant by volume range. There are two or three concepts that
apparently should be noted. One assumes *hat the noise level is measured on a
flat system, giving one result. Another is that the noise level is measured on a
system whose characteristic is that of the ear, giving an entirely different result.
Still another, termed effective volume range— and it seemed to some members of
the Committee that that concept should be defined — concerned the ratio of the
loudest to the lowest sounds that it was good practice to record. Volume range
should be so defined that we can all talk the same language. So far it has not been.
PRESIDENT TASKER: It seems highly desirable that we should arrive at a com-
mon understanding of what is meant by volume range. Of these three proposals,
116 N. LEVINSON
the last is perhaps the least easily specified, and involves the most opinion and
good judgment. The second, likewise, depends upon a factor that is easily mis-
understood and is not easy to reproduce promptly with measuring apparatus. It
would seem to me, therefore, that the first was the one that ought to be most
seriously considered as a standard of reference. In any case, the definition will be
more or less arbitrary.
It must be realized that the third concept states what we are trying to attain
and what we are concerned about. We are concerned with the ratio between what
we dare to put upon the film as a maximum, and what we may put upon it as a
minimum. Once having specified the range between the maximum recording
signal and the surface noise under some easily specified condition, then all our
thinking might be referred to that figure. Consequently, I should like to propose
that the first of those be the one adopted.
MR. EVANS: The Sound Committee, in studying the question, felt that our
definitions should be consistent with similar definitions in the radio field. Radio
engineers have encountered the same problem, so we are trying to determine
what, if anything, the Institute of Radio Engineers has done in the way of defining
such terms.
MECHANICAL REVERSED-BIAS LIGHT-VALVE
RECORDING*
E. H. HANSEN AND C. W. FAULKNER**
Summary. — Many methods have been applied recently for increasing the volume
range of recordings. Some, such as the push-pull system, require mechanical and
electrical modification of existing apparatus in order to utilize their advantages. In
an effort to produce prints capable of standard reproduction, with increased signal-to-
noise ratio, the mechanical reversed-bias method has been used at the Twentieth Cen-
tury-Fox Film Studios. Briefly, it is a method of reverse-biasing a valve so that the
valve aperture is increased by the biasing current to a degree sufficient to prevent clash.
Further modification provides for a combination of standard biasing up to a certain
percentage of modulation and mechanical reverse-biasing from that point on, resulting
in an increase of 8 to 12 decibels over the usual methods in signal-to-noise ratio.
Recent developments of sound recording and reproduction have
indicated a growing appreciation of the necessity for more nearly con-
forming to the original sound level and frequency range. Wide-
range and high-fidelity developments have sufficiently expanded the
frequency range to improve the illusion of reality considerably, but
no method yet in commercial use provides a volume range of the de-
sired extent. It has been felt that a range of approximately 55 deci-
bels from the surface noise to the peak level would provide a true
sound volume perspective.
Since the inception of sound pictures an attempt has been made to
achieve expansion and compression of volume by means of the fader,
cued by the projectionist. This means is entirely unsatisfactory, due
to the requirements of manual cueing, and requires that the operator
be able to give his undivided attention to his cues, be alert at every
showing, to have a genuine interest in his work, and a sense of show-
manship. From sad experience it has been found necessary to pro-
duce prints containing therein all the necessary volume variations,
and a reproducing system having a capacity sufficient to encompass
this range of volume. With reference to the latter, much considera-
* Presented at the Fall, 1935, Meeting at Washington, D. C.
** Twentieth Century-Fox Film Corp., Hollywood, Calif,
117
118
E. H. HANSEN AND C. W. FAULKNER [J. s. M. p. E.
tion is being given nowadays to the fact that there are very few
houses capable of reproducing even speech levels without some trace
of volume distortion. There are many 1200-seat houses in which the
maximum undistorted output is less than three watts.
While the studio is vitally interested in reproduction, it must first
place its own house in order and provide a negative of optimal char-
acteristics and capacity. In studio production, we find two kinds of
mixers: those of the first school believe in setting their own peak
levels and allowing sounds from the source to modulate and mix them-
selves; those of the second group have become afflicted with what is
commonly known as the "mixer's itch." Experience has shown it to
be possible for both kinds of mixers to achieve excellent results, al-
though it appears that in general those of the former group turn out
consistently better pictures.
FIG. 1. Diagram of the noise-reduction unit.
It is customary in production to record dialog peaks approximately
10 decibels below clash. This is supposed to be sufficient to take care
of dialog peak transients and the volume differential between normal
dialog and a brass band, airplane motor, or the firing of a 16-inch gun.
Some sounds, of course, are so loud as to be unpleasant to hear, even
should the facilities be provided for recording and reproducing them,
and we should not care to reproduce them in their original intensities.
There is, however, need for a 30- to 40-db. differential between nor-
mal dialog and peak volume. It might well be that during the repro-
Feb., 1936] REVERSED-BlAS LlGHT- VALVE RECORDING
119
duction of an entire picture the peak capacity would be reached for
only a few seconds, but the improved effectiveness of the picture as a
whole would warrant the greater range.
The limiting factor in standard recording is either that of over-
shooting the oscillograph armature or the clash of valve ribbons.
This happens before photographic and amplifier distortion occurs, and
places a psychological handicap upon the mixer. The mixer's atti-
tude is to play safe, and his involuntary muscular reaction is to reduce
FIG. 2. Wiring diagram of recorder control cabinet.
the level. The optimal arrangement would be to set the mixer at the
normal dialog level and allow the peak sounds to reach their limits
without restriction. With certain abnormally loud sounds the flatten-
ing of the film response curve would be the only safety-valve provided.
Many methods have been applied during the past two or three
years for increasing volume range of the system. Some of these, such
as the push-pull system, require the mechanical and electrical modi-
fication of existing apparatus in order to utilize their advantages in
theater reproduction. In an effort to produce prints capable of
standard reproduction, with increased signal-to-noise ratio, the me-
chanical reversed-bias method has been used on certain productions at
120
E. H. HANSEN AND C. W. FAULKNER [J. S. M. P. E.
1.8
the Twentieth Century-Fox Film Studios. Briefly, it is a method of
reverse-biasing a valve so that the valve aperture is increased by the
biasing current to a degree sufficient to prevent clash. Further modi-
fication provides for a combination of standard biasing up to a certain
percentage of modulation and mechanical reverse-biasing from that
point on, resulting in an increase of 8 to 12 decibels over the usual
methods in signal-to-noise ratio.
In lining up a standard valve
for recording, it might be well to
describe briefly the circuit of the
noise-reduction unit, as shown in
Fig. 1 . Four amplifier tubes are
used, the fifth tube, V-5, being
the 1000-cycle test oscillator. An
oscillator of the tuned-plate type
generating a frequency of 20,000
cycles (V-2) is used to feed the
push-pull stage, V-3 and V-4, the
output of the latter being recti-
fied by the copper-oxide unit to
produce direct biasing currents
for the valve. The push-pull
stage is modulated by the volt-
age drop across R-5, which
is derived from a second copper-
oxide rectifier in the output
Valve spacing as a function of circmt of V-l. V-l is merely a
the biasing current.
speech amplifier of the conven-
tional transformer-coupled type. The output or biasing current from
the copper-oxide rectifier (57M744) is approximately proportional to
the voltage drop across R-5. It will be noticed with reference to the
grid circuits of V-3 and V-4, that the polarity of the voltage drop
across R-5 is opposed to that of the bias voltage applied through
P-3; thus, as the rectified signal voltage across R-5 is increased, the
grids become more positive until at the shoulder of the IP-Eg curve
the a-c. output of V-3 and V-4 is zero.
After the main recording amplifiers have been properly adjusted,
the 1000-cycle test oscillator is turned on, with a signal of approxi-
mately — 4 db. applied to the input of the valve transformer T-l
(Fig. 2). With this signal applied to the valve, a pair of head-phones
FIG. 3.
Feb., 1936] REVERSED-BlAS LlGHT- VALVE RECORDING
121
is inserted into J-2 and the simplex resistor P-3 is adjusted until the
tone heard is minimal. When this adjustment has been made, the
phones are removed and an attempt is made to determine the clash
point of the valve. This may be done in several ways, the one most
commonly used being to listen directly to the valve. For valves of
the permanent magnet type tuned to 10,000 cps., this has been found
5.0
FIG. 4. Relation of valve spacing to
biasing current for a 6-db. margin, up to an
applied level of +14 decibels.
to be: for the 0.5-mil valve, +2 db.; for the 1-mil valve, +8 db.;
for the 2-mil valve, +14 db. The noise-reduction unit is then ready
for adjustment.
Assume that the valve is spaced 1 mil, the desired noise-reduction
is 8 decibels, and that the margin between signal input and valve spac-
ing is 6 decibels. First, obtain the clash level, which will be approxi-
mately +8 decibels. Desiring an 8-db. noise reduction, the input
signal is decreased by 8 db., or to zero level, at which point the bias
from the noise-reduction unit (K-l) should be turned on and in-
122
E. H. HANSEN AND C. W. FAULKNER [j. s. M. P. E.
creased by means of P-3 until a second, or biased clash, results. The
difference between the original spacing and the biased spacing will de-
termine the reduction of noise, which in this case should be 8 decibels.
Letting the bias current flow through the valve, provision should now
be made for the 6-db. margin between the signal input and the valve
spacing. The original clash level being +8 decibels, an input sig-
nal set at +2 decibels would cancel the biasing current 6 decibels be-
low the original level. The cancellation is done by turning on K-8
and adjusting the gain of the noise-reduction amplifier by means of
P-2 and P-L
FIG. 5. Negative film characteristic. At A, with a 0.5-mil valve, the ex-
citer lamp is adjusted for a negative density of 0.3. As the exposure at any
step is 1.4 that of the preceding step, B represents the exposure with a 1-mil
valve (lamp adjustment remaining unchanged), C for 2 mils, and D for 4 mils.
For a margin of 6 decibels between valve width and signal strength, E repre-
sents the lowest density used.
In order to modify the noise-reduction system for operation with th^
reversed valve, referring to Fig. 1, changes 5, 6, and 8 were made. By
reversing the voltage drop across R-5, making it additive to the bias
applied through P-3, and returning the grids of V-3 and V-4 to the
positive leg of the filament, we attain the condition of zero, or a
slightly positive bias of the modulator stage, V-3 and V-4. Conse-
quently, current flows in the grid circuit of V-3 and V-4, lowering the
tube input impedance and, in turn, the impedance looking into T-4
from the 20,000-cycle oscillator, V-2, thus causing a decrease in am-
plitude of the oscillator output.
When a negative voltage is applied to V-3 and V-4, the tube input
impedance increases, causing a decrease in the reflected impedance
into the primary circuit of T-4, and the output of the oscillator in-
creases. We therefore have the condition that, when the maximum
Feb., 19.36] RRVERSED-BlAS LlGHT- VALVE RECORDING
123
biasing current is required at the valve, the modulator stage, V-3 and
I'-/, is supplied with a negative bias (voltage drop across R-5) of
sufficient magnitude to work the tubes at the center of the straight -
line portion of the Ip— Vg curve. The impedance reflected into the
primary of T-4 is decreased ; the amplitude of oscillation is increased ;
and a maximum of current, limited by the carrying capacity of the
tubes V-3 and V-4 of the modulator stage, is supplied to the valve.
• Referring to change 7, the polarity of the bias supplied to the valve
must be such as to cause the valve to open ; hence the reversal of the
leads of J-l, which are the light- valve simplex circuits.
-10
Attenuation of Film sound Record for various valve spaclnga
-20 : S : in -
-30
100
1000
10.000
FIG. 6. Attenuation as a function of frequency for valve spacings of 0.5,
1.0, and 2.0 mils.
With this arrangement, as the signal input is increased the amount
of bias to the valve is accordingly increased, and the valve spacing
will be approximately proportional to the signal input up to the over-
load point of V-3 and V-4. Provision is made for the 6-db. margin
by adjusting the gain of the noise-reduction amplifier, V-l, until for
any given a-c. signal input to the valve, the bias supplied through the
noise-reduction unit will be sufficient to open the valve to a spacing
that will accommodate a signal of twice the applied voltage before
clashing.
Fig. 3 shows the valve spacing in mils corresponding as to the bias-
ing current in milliamperes. Fig. 4 shows the relation of the valve
spacing for a 6-db. margin, with applied power up to +14 decibels.
Fig. 5 is the negative film characteristic for a 0.5-mil valve. The
exciter lamp is set to produce a density of 0.3 on the negative
124
E. H. HANSEN AND C. W. FAULKNER [j. s. M. p. E.
COIDHrSIHG
LENS.
2| 1 BSDDCTIOH
OBJECTIVE
LMS.
EXCITING LIGHT
PLAITS.
FIG. 7.
TALTB
FILM
PIAHE.
Diagram of the optical leverage.
(A , Fig. 5) . Each step is 1 .4 times the exposure of the preceding step.
Point B represents the exposure with a 1-mil valve for the previous
value of exciter lamp current; C and D, the exposure from a 2- and a
4-mil valve, respectively. Using a margin of 6 decibels between the
valve width and the signal strength, E represents the lowest density
used. Figs. 4 and 5 have been plotted up to a level of +14 decibels.
However, satisfactory processing is possible with higher levels,
showing increased volume ranges over the conventional methods.
Fig. 6 shows the attenuation as a function of the valve spacing,
for spacings of 0.5, 1.0, and 2.0 mils. Although the attenuation
appears to be serious, in practice the ear does not detect the attenua-
FIG. 8. Negative film characteristic. At A, with a 1-mil valve, the ex-
citer lamp is adjusted for a negative density of 0.5. By means of an A-
battery, the valve is biased for a 10-db. noise reduction (B). The bias sup-
plied by the noise-reduction unit being opposite, and more than sufficient to
cancel the initial bias, the valve is opened an amount wider than the initial
spacing determined by the rectified current from the noise-reduction unit. C
represents the exposure for a 2-mil spacing; D, 4 mils; and E represents
the lowest density used with a margin of 6 decibels between valve width
and signal.
Feb., 1 <»:;<;
REVERSED-BIAS LIGHT- VALVE RECORDING
125
tion as would be indicated by these curves, due to the optical leverage
shown in Fig. 7.
It was felt that since the advantages gained through the simple
mechanical reversed-current valve were so noticeable, a further in-
crease might result if double biasing were used. In this arrangement
reversed bias is reduced to a spacing of approximately 1 mil, and then
standard biasing is applied from this spacing down to whatever value
£.0
1.6
1.4
FIG. 9. Valve spacing with positive
tive biases.
of noise reduction is desired. It is therefore possible to achieve both
the maximum of standard noise reduction plus the advantage of the
reversed bias. In the operation of a double-bias valve the good fea-
tures of both the standard and reversed bias are used.
Referring to Fig. 1, note 8, an external battery is used to bias the
valve for an 8-db. closure, while the polarity of the bias from the noise-
reduction unit is opposite, so as to open the valve. Unlike the nor-
mal or standard set-up, the valve does not retain its original opening
126
E. H. HANSEN AND C. W. FAULKNER [j. s. M. p. E.
once it has attained it, with clash occurring when the higher signal is
applied; rather, the bias increases with the signal strength up to the
overload point of V-3 and V-4, permitting the valve to accommodate
a signal of greater amplitude.
Referring to Fig. 8, it will be seen from the negative H&D curve
that film distortion will not occur until the valve has been opened to
approximately 2l/z mils and fully modulated. This is a typical nega-
0 CO 100 ISO 200 280 900
FIG. 10. Valve spacing with negative and positive biases
for 6-db. margin, up to an applied level of +14 decibels.
tive H&D curve for double biasing. Using a valve spacing of 1 mil,
the exciter lamp is set to produce a density of 0.5 on the negative
(A, Fig. 8). By means of an external or system A -battery the valve
is biased for a noise reduction of 10 decibels (B, Fig. 8). The bias
applied by the noise-reduction unit being opposite in polarity and
more than sufficient to cancel the initial bias, the valve is opened
wider than the original spacing. This spacing will be determined by
the amount of rectifier current from the noise-reduction unit. C,
Fig. 8, represents the exposure from a valve spaced 2 mils; D, the ex-
Feb., 1936] REVERSED-BlAS LlGHT- VALVE RECORDING 127
posure from a valve spaced 4 mils ; and E, the lowest density used with
a margin of 6 decibels between valve width and signal.
Fig. 9 shows the valve spacing in mils when positive and negative
biases are applied. The normal spacing in this case is 1 mil. Fig.
10 shows the valve spacing in mils plotted against applied power
levels up to +14 decibels. In the search for methods of achieving
greater levels it must always be borne in mind that an increase in
noise reduction is equivalent to a corresponding increase in the load-
carrying value of the negative.
In general, the following are the advantages of the double-biased
valve :
(1) Approximately 10 decibels' higher level on the film than with the standard
valve.
(2) Less attentuation at the high frequencies for the same modulation of the
negative, as compared with that of the reversed valve.
(5) Less power necessary than with the reversed valve, for the same value of
modulation of the negative.
(4) Less distortion from valve bowing, for a given modulation of the negative.
THE MOTION PICTURE THEATER SHAPE AND EFFEC-
TIVE VISUAL RECEPTION*
B. SCHLANGER**
Summary. — The shape of the motion picture theater should be determined both
in the horizontal and vertical sense, chiefly by certain basic factors of the physiology
of the eye and the laws of visual reception. Recognition of these factors in designing
the theater produces a theater form of minimal depth, concentrating the seating as
much as possible with the vertical dimension. Visual acuity and the subtended
angles of the viewed image are analyzed as they affect the theater form.
One of the valuable features of the motion picture lies in the fact
that the spectator can, at will, be placed exceedingly close to, or at
any desired position in relation to the action upon, the screen, thus
transplanting him from the theater to the actual time and locale of
the story that is unfolding. This effect is not fully achieved at the
present time because of the prevalent forms of the motion picture
theater. If the spectator were at the actual scene, the position of the
objects in view would be vividly impressed upon him by means of
the amount of detail discernible and by the large proportion of the
field of view occupied by the object. The spectator in the theater
must experience an equally vivid impression. But in the theater the
image upon the screen from most viewing points occupies a compara-
tively smaller portion of the area of the spectator's field of view, less
detail is discernible, and, thereby, the original force of the particular
scene as the director envisioned it is diminished.
The view of the screen from any seat in the theater should, as
nearly as possible, transmit to the retina of the spectator's eye the
same picture recorded upon the retina of his eye as though he were
at the actual scene, with his eye occupying the same position as the
camera lens. The physiology of the eye should be studied to deter-
mine whether such correspondence of visual reception be possible,
if not from all, at least from almost all, the seats in the theater. In
* Presented at the Fall, 1935, Meeting at Washington, D. C.
** New York, N. Y.
128
THEATER SHAPE AND VISUAL RECEPTION 129
the present theater form, such desirable reception is experienced from
a comparatively small number of seats.
More specifically, visual acuity, the geometry of optics, and an
analysis of the distinct and indistinct fields of view must be considered
in this problem. Lack of recognition of the fundamental physiological
aspects of vision in motion picture theater design has resulted in
structures in which a major portion of the seating capacity is un-
suitable for effective visual reception. Many other factors of second-
ary importance, such as acoustics and projection, have been recog-
nized and studied with fair success. Yet the more important physio-
logical elements of visual reception have been largely neglected.
It is known that if one sits too far to one side of the screen, the
picture becomes distorted. This fault has been apparent, and an
effort has been made to avoid such viewing positions when designing
the theaters. The factors dealt with in this paper relate more speci-
fically to the ratio of the screen size to the viewing distances. The
thesis here will be that too many seats are located too far from the
screen for a given size of screen.
The disadvantages of excessive viewing distances are not as ap-
parent to the viewer as is side-seat distortion, except in that the viewer
usually tries to find a seat at a distance from the screen that is satis-
factory to him; and repeatedly, on subsequent visits, he seeks the
same point of view. A chart made to record the locations of the seats
chosen by the first half of the audience attending each show, averaged
over a number of theaters and a number of shows, would provide an
indication of the limits of the viewing distances within which the
most satisfactory reception occurs. Such an area can be accurately
plotted now that the physiology of the instrument of reception,
namely, the eye, is well understood.
To set the limits of the distance, it is necessary first to determine
the maximal size of the audience, which must be determined by the
maximal size of screen, which, in turn, is determined by the pres-
ent width of film. If the visual acuity, apparent screen size, and
distortion are properly considered in motion picture theater design,
the seating capacity, using 35-mm. film, should not exceed much
more than 2000 chairs. It might be noted that an increase in the
width of the film would not necessarily warrant greater seating
capacity, because such increase might be made more for improving
the proportions of the picture — making it wider — than for increasing
the size of the elements in the screen image. The height of the picture,
130
B. SCHLANGER
[J. S. M. P. E.
and therefore the size of its elements, could be and would be the same
as it is now. The need of a screen and a width of film to accommodate
many more than 2000 seats may be disregarded, as recent statistics
on seating capacities have indicated.
The limit of seating capacity is determined by the maximal view-
ing distance for a given size of screen. As the size of the screen
increases, to accommodate increasing viewing distances, the magnifica-
tion finally causes graininess to appear in the image, and the distor-
tion of the picture seen from areas near the screen becomes worse.
The limits of the 35-mm. film are thus determined. It is therefore
obvious that it becomes necessary to reduce the viewing distance
and the screen size, and endeavor to place the greatest number of
seats within the viewing distance so limited. Such an arrangement
would minimize the graininess of the image and the side-seat distor-
FIG. 1. Longitudinal section of auditorium, showing seating arrangements
for (.4) limited viewing distance, approximately 3*/2 times the screen width ; and
(B) usual arrangement in existing auditoriums, with viewing distances up to 5
times the screen width.
tion of the theater. Fig. 1 is a longitudinal section of an auditorium,
indicating one method of achieving this.
An investigation was made for the purpose of establishing a proper
ratio of maximal viewing distance to screen size, of which the visual
acuity of the viewer and the apparent size of the screen image to him
are the determining factors. This ratio in nearly all existing motion
picture theaters ranges from 5 to 7 times the screen width. A ratio
of 3x/2 to 4 was chosen in constructing Fig. 1.
Visual acuity is the ability to distinguish fine detail, and is measured
in terms of the angle of vision at which the detail in question becomes
indiscernible. Helmholtz observed that under best conditions this
angle is about one minute and four seconds. Weber fixed it at one
minute and thirteen seconds to two minutes and thirty-three seconds,
subject to the intricacy of the pattern. More recently, Luckiesh and
Moss, and Freeman have made extensive tests taking into considera-
Feb., 1936] THEATER SHAPE AND VISUAL RECEPTION 131
tion the exposure time, the viewing distance, and the relative con-
trasts. In one of Luckiesh's tests, one minute and fifteen seconds
was the limiting angle for a test-object placed at a distance of 320
centimeters from the eye.
The ratios 3*/2 and 4 correspond to limiting angles of 3 minutes,
15 seconds and 2 minutes, 45 seconds, respectively. The angle was
determined by selecting very small important details in a number of
motion picture scenes and measuring the sizes of such details upon
the screen and the distances at which they could still be seen clearly.
It is recommended that a certain margin be allowed for extreme
distances, low contrast in the image, and rapid exposures. In such
cases the visual acuity angle has to be as great as four minutes.
Actual auditorium tests should be made to establish the margin more
exactly.
It might be argued that close-up shots in cinematography cir-
cumvent the need for great acuity with more distant shots. That
is not so, because with the increase in size of the close-up, there is a
corresponding increase in the number of details to be discerned. The
need for a larger margin for the acuity angle, and correspondingly
shorter viewing distances, becomes more evident when it is realized
that many important details upon the screen have contrast values
of 25 to 50 per cent, and sometimes less. Smaller contrast values,
with shorter viewing distances, are far more desirable than unnatural,
sharp contrasts used to make longer viewing distances possible.
Ideal visual reception of motion pictures is not achieved merely
by limiting the viewing distance for visual acuity only. The visual
angle for the viewer, subtended by an image upon the screen, and the
"visual" angle for the camera lens, subtended by the object being
photographed, should, under ideal conditions, be the same. The
field of view in each case must be similarly occupied, so that the
proportion of the field of view occupied by the object of interest will
be the same when viewing the image of the object upon the screen
as it would be if the object were viewed from the lens of the camera.
To achieve such an effect, the viewing distance would have to be
limited to an impracticable extent, unless a multiple-screen theater
were feasible. Note in Fig. 2, showing horizontal viewing angles,
that A, at a distance of 3 times the width of the screen, subtends a
horizontal angle of 20 degrees, and a proportionate (3:4) vertical
angle of 15 degrees. This makes it necessary for the camera lens to
encompass an angle of no more than 15 degrees for an image of full
132
B. SCHLANGER
[J. S. M. P. E.
screen height, if the viewing distance (in the theater) is about three
times the screen width. If the camera is placed closer to the object
than that, as it quite often is, the full effect of the close-up is not
realized in the theater because of the limited visual angle of the spec-
tator. Although it might be impracticable to duplicate in the theater
the angle subtended by the lens of the camera, it becomes necessary
to limit the viewing distance to at least that determined by the
proposed ratios, as a practicable compromise.
What form of theater would be best adapted to the physical re-
quirements of effective visual reception? Fig. 1 presents a possible
method of locating the viewing points within the more desirable
limits. One of the aims of this design is to place as many seats as
possible in the vertical plane at the particular viewing distance most
FIG. 2. Plan of viewing angles, showing difference in proportion of screen
image subtended from points distant from the screen by (^4) 3 times the screen
width and (B) four times the screen width.
satisfactory for visual reception. The vertical limits were fixed by
placing the highest spectator so that his eye would subtend an angle of
20 degrees, as a maximum, between a line from the eye drawn to the'
bottom of the screen and a line projected horizontally from the eye.
Likewise, the spectator placed lowest in the auditorium was so located
that an angle of 20 degrees would be subtended to the top of the
screen. These limits are determined by the posture assumed by the
spectator in order to enjoy reasonable comfort in viewing the screen.
To increase the height within which seats may be placed, the size of
the screen, and, correspondingly, the viewing distance, must be
increased. The limit, as stated before, is determined by the maximal
permissible magnification of the 35-mm. film.
The theater form described here can be translated into a feasible
structural design. The upper levels of seating are conveniently
accessible to the street grade. The highest level of seating occurs
Feb., 1936] THEATER SHAPE AND VISUAL RECEPTION 133
where the front portion of the first balcony is usually found. This
vertical disposition is made possible by making the orchestra
level sufficiently low and yet within the limits of comfortable upward
vision.
On the longitudinal section (Fig. 1), the light lines indicate the usual
theater form, the depth of which is most unsuitable for proper visual
reception. A great many theaters have viewing distances greater
than that illustrated in Fig. 1 . In the present usual theater, the spec-
tators occupying distant viewing points are forced to become audience-
conscious, because a large part of their field of vision is shared by
the heads and shoulders of spectators seated in front of them. The
improved form shown here is broken into smaller, intimate groups of
seats, making the spectator less audience-conscious and permitting
the screen to predominate in his field of vision, all of which assists
decidedly in creating the desired illusion.
DISCUSSION
MR. CRABTREE : Has the lower floor a reverse slope, in conformance with your
previous recommendations, or a half reverse slope?
MR. SCHLANGER: It is an improved, moderately pitched, reversed slope. A
number of theaters have been built employing the principle of the reversed slope
and have given quite satisfactory results. A slight modification of the origi-
nal design has been made to correct for the neck-strain experienced in the first few
rows.
In the original design, the screen was placed somewhat higher than was later
found necessary. A choice had to be made between a high screen, causing up-
ward-looking and neck-strain in the first few rows, completely without obstruc-
tion ; and a compromise design of a lower screen, eliminating neck-strain, but with
a tolerable amount of obstruction. Upon investigating a great number of theaters
having the ordinary floor slope, I found that the comparatively low screen level
and an intolerable amount of obstruction prevailed.
Two methods of approach can be followed in designing the floor. One is to pro-
vide a clear view for each person over the heads of those in front of him ; the other
is to disregard the need for a clear view and depend upon seeing the screen occa-
sionally between the heads of those in front. The ordinary theater floor is based
entirely upon the latter arrangement and, as a result, the view of one-third to the
entire height of the screen is obstructed by preceding heads.
The reversed floor described here is designed so that, in the worst instance, no
more than one-fourth of the screen would be obstructed by the heads, a degree
of obstruction that proves to be tolerable. The pitch is more moderate than that
of the usual floor, making walking upon it less difficult. The reversed floor not
only reduces the degree of obstruction, but helps to bring more seats within the
desirable seating area by making possible desirable upper levels of seating within
correct viewing distances.
134 B. SCHLANGER [J. S. M. P. E.
With limited viewing distances, the ability to obtain a clear view of the screen
increases; that is, the greater the viewing distance, the greater the obstruction,
as can be demonstrated by holding a finger in front of the eye. As the finger is
moved nearer the eye, it obstructs more and more of the view.
With limited viewing distances and the obstruction lessened, the orchestra floor
can be rather flat. The rise of the floor as we approach the screen brings those in
the front rows nearer the high point of the screen. The ordinary theater floor,
starting at a low point and changing direction as we move away from the screen,
immediately rises upward, infringing upon the valuable vertical plane of seating.
It rises so rapidly that the upper levels of seating are forced upward too rapidly
and, as a result, into levels in the vertical plane that are no longer useful. In
the proposed plan advantage is taken of space below the ordinary orchestra level,
leaving greater upper areas for additional desirable seats.
The suggestion of using this low area is based on the fact that the farther we
move from the plane of an object to be viewed, the higher we can see upon the
plane without raising the head or using other mechanical means. We just natu-
rally see higher when we move farther away. We can place our seats in the or-
chestra at points distant from the screen at lower levels than we find in the usual
orchestra and yet enjoy an upward vision of the screen that is comfortable.
Moving toward the screen the upward vision becomes restricted, and the floor,
therefore, must turn upward to compensate for the loss.
At least five or six theaters have been built with reversed floors. The latest is
the Fix Theater, at White Plains, N. Y. The first theaters so designed, the Button
and the Thalia Theaters in New York, and one in Mexico, which latter I have not
personally had the pleasure of seeing, have proved quite successful.
MR. CRABTREE: As I understand, you have so arranged the geometry of the
theater that a line perpendicular to the screen would lie midway between the
upper and the lower floors, dividing the distortion equally between the two levels.
MR. SCHLANGER: Yes. The last head on the orchestra floor subtends an
angle to the screen of twenty degrees, chosen as the maximum for comfortable
upward vision. The visual angle in the last row of the balcony is such that the
spectator can view the picture while his back rests comfortably against the back
of the chair. He will not have to bend forward to see downward. In the inter-
mediate level we have practically an ideal condition. We can look straight ahead
without the least adjustment of the body.
MR. CRABTREE: What is the extent of the picture distortion in the two po-
sitions?
MR. SCHLANGER: The picture distortion in both positions is far less than what
is known to be tolerable.
MR. CRABTREE: Also, you have shortened the depth of each balcony as com-
pared with the average theater.
MR. SCHLANGER: Yes. The balconies are at such a distance from the screen
as to be within the area recommended in this paper. If they were deepened, they
would extend beyond that area. There are therefore two upper levels instead of
one, and just so many more seats within the proper viewing limits. The usual
upper level in existing theaters is a great deal higher, and should not be compared
with this design.
In the usual theater, shown superimposed in Fig. 1 over the proposed design,
Feb., 1936] THEATER SHAPE AND VISUAL RECEPTION 135
the seating capacity is approximately the same. In other words, I have succeeded
in placing the same number of seats within the shorter, desirable viewing distance,
which was the object of this work. The seating capacity is limited only by the
properties of the 35-mm. film.
MR. CRABTREE : Is all this calculated upon the assumption that the height of a
person above his seat is fixed? I seem always to be unfortunate enough to find a
giant seated ahead of me; and when I move to another seat, I find another giant.
Would it not be possible, perhaps, to make the seats adjustable so that in such a
case a lever could be pulled and the seat raised? It is a very annoying situation.
MR. SCHLANGER: Originally I considered the idea of being able to look over
the head of the person in front, and I found a number of disadvantages which I
have mentioned before. A certain tolerance has been allowed so that the person
ahead would not occupy more than one-fourth of the height of the screen. In
most present theaters the whole screen is blotted out completely from the rear
rows. In some of the largest theaters in New York having the ordinary type of
floor, spectators in the last fifteen or twenty rows can not see the screen without
having to keep shifting to see between heads.
MR. CRABTREE: Yes, the public is being cheated if there is any obstruction.
MR. SCHLANGER: I agree. It is a tremendously difficult problem to eliminate
obstruction completely on the orchestra floor without resorting to some means of
individual chair adjustment, and there is always a practical objection to anything
of that sort. In the original reverse type of floor full clearance was possible pro-
vided the chairs were built with head-rests to take care of neck-strain, but that was
impracticable.
ELIMINATION OF SPLICE NOISE IN SOUND-FILM
E. I. SPONABLE**
Summary. — Various methods of eliminating splice noise in sound-films are dis-
cussed. A new machine is described that operates upon the punch-press principle,
utilizing an opaque cellulose acetate adhesive tape to mask out sound splices.
The necessity of doing something to eliminate splice noises was
realized very early in the practical development of the sound-on-film
system. In one of the notebooks of the Case Research Laboratory,
dated February 13, 1926, the following appears:
"Mr. Case has observed and been bothered for some time by the click produced
when splices go through our projection machine. Not only does the positive splice
make a click but the negative splice sounds when printed through on to the posi-
tive. In order to correct this trouble Mr. Case suggests a graded splice; that is, a
splice occupying possibly more length, or at least grading in density up to a maxi-
mum, and then grading down gradually so as not to give
the complete change which will produce a click.
"The same trouble could be avoided by having a shutter
operated by the film which would close before a splice
passed the slit. This could also be accomplished by having
a control on the light itself.
"Mr. Case believes that these suggestions are very im-
portant, and will be especially so in sound picture pro-
duction where it is necessary to put together a large
number of scenes. He intends to apply for a patent
covering these ideas."
n n n n n
ft n n n i*
A
FIG. 1. Paint-
out: (A) Correct
method, quiet; (B)
too short, will click ;
(C) too long, keeps
sound off.
In Case's first experiments he used India ink
applied to the gelatin side of the film to produce
a gradual change of density at the splice. This
was not entirely satisfactory due to the time required for drying
after the gelatin was wetted by the ink, and to the ink cracking after
it had dried.
A short time later it was found that a quick-drying black lacquer,
* Presented at the Fall, 1935, Meeting at Washington, D. C.
** 20th Century-Fox Film Corp., New York, N. Y.
136
ELIMINATION OF SPLICE NOISE
137
which softened the film base slightly, could be used to paint out
splices by applying it with a small brush to the celluloid side of the
film in the manner shown in Fig. 1. This method, which was de-
scribed in the Fox-Case Corporation's Movietone Bulletin of January,
1928, is still in use today, although its execution in some of the com-
mercial laboratories leaves much to be desired. Fig. 2 shows clearly
the defects of such a method — more noise is frequently introduced by
FIG. 2. Good and poor commercial paint-outs.
FIG. 3. Punch-out and resulting print- through.
poor painting-out than would occur with an unpainted splice. Vari-
ous opaquing materials, and all sorts of stencils, rollers, stamps, and
other means for applying such materials have been tried from time to
time, but none has worked practically, largely due to uneven covering,
or running- under effects.
In the early part of 1928 (U. S. Patent No. 1,785,215) a method of
handling negative sound splices was devised which consisted in punch-
ing out a triangularly shaped portion of the sound-track at the splice
138
E. I. SPONABLE
[J. S. M. p. E.
(Fig. 3) . When the negative was printed the punch-out would allow
sufficient exposure of the print to form a black image, of such shape as
to eliminate noise when the film was reproduced. This method has
proved very practicable and is still in regular use
today although the dimensions of the hole vary
somewhat, as shown in Fig. 3. The hole in the
negative represents a narrow-based triangular
punch; .the print was made from one having a
longer base. A typical tool for making the
punch-outs is shown in Fig. 4, and consists of a
punch and die arrangement mounted in a con-
venient manner for hand operation.
In addition to the variations in the dimensions
of the triangular hole (Fig. 5), several other
shapes of holes are in use at the present time
(Fig. 6), all affording fairly satisfactory results
when the tools are perfectly sharp and in good
adjustment so as to punch cut-outs free from
ragged edges. This method of punching out splices has the dis-
advantage of weakening the film and making it susceptible to tearing
or breaking in the printers. Also, as a result of extending the fre-
quency range of the reproducers, the length of the blooped section
is not sufficient to suppress the noise entirely unless it is used in con-
junction with some sort of cut-off in the low-frequency range.
Another method of handling negative when only sound-track is in-
FIG. 5. Dimensions of punch-outs.
volved is to use a modified splicer that makes a patch at an appreciable
angle to the direction of film travel (Fig. 7) . Obviously, the length of
the oblique section in the sample shown at the right of Fig. 7 is not
Feb., 1936]
ELIMINATION OF SPLICE NOISE
139
sufficient to be of any great practical value. In the case of a film hav-
ing both sound and picture, a special patch, shown at the left, has been
tried, which runs across the film between the picture frames, then
travels obliquely across the sound-track, and again perpendicularly
to the edge of the film at the sprocket holes. Such a patch requires
a special splicer, is difficult to make properly, and hence is not en-
tirely practicable.
Another method of treating splices wg,s worked out several years
FIG. 6. Three print-through shapes.
FIG. 7. Angle splices.
ago, the general arrangement of which is shown in Fig. 8. A special
gate was provided containing a small lamp behind an aperture so
positioned that when the light was flashed on, the positive stock
would be exposed, through the celluloid, over the sound-track area.
The sound negative was notched near the splice, this notch operating
a contact switch that lighted the small lamp behind the special printer
gate, as well as serving to control the exposure in the sound printing
aperture. This type of device produced a variable-density mask such
140
E. I. SPONABLE
[J. S. M. p. E.
FIG. 8. Patch-flashing gate.
as is shown in Fig. 9. The masking could be controlled both as to
position and density as well as length of exposure, by properly choos-
ing the location and the length of the control notch. The procedure,
of course, solved only the problem of handling negative patches.
Later, as a result of the practice of re-recording practically all original
sound into a final negative free from patches, the method was aban-
doned.
A very satisfactory way of blocking out positive patches was de-
veloped and described by Crabtree and Ives, l utilizing a special form
of opaque patch, shown at the top of Fig. 10, which could be cemented
over a film splice by means of the special registering clamp block
FIG. 9. Variable-density mask produced by patch-flash-
ing gate.
Feb., 1936]
ELIMINATION OF SPLICE NOISE
141
shown. Crabtree and Ives thoroughly investigated the require-
ments and design of the blooping patch and recommended a patch
about one inch in length, shaped as shown. Such a patch was found
to be practically inaudible above 25 cycles. The main disadvantage
of the method is the time required to apply the patches.
Recently, with the availability of opaque cellophane adhesives, it
was decided to try to find a way to use this material in some form of
punch and die machine. The problem was discussed with T. J.
Walsh of the National Cine* Laboratories, New York, N. Y., who had
FIG. 10. (Upper) Patch with and without finger tab. (Lower) Regi-
stration block, showing film and patch in position on pins.
also been considering the problem, and who built the model machine
shown in Fig. 11. The machine is operated by means of a hand lever
which, upon being depressed, feeds a section of the adhesive material
into position, cuts the patch by means of a very accurate punch and
die, and finally presses the cut-out portion directly into intimate con-
tact with the spliced film, which has been inserted and registered in
position at the base of the machine. The opaque adhesive material
is carried upon a perforated paper support in such a manner that the
adhesive tape is left free to be cut out by the punch (Fig. 12), the per-
142
E. I. SPONABLE
[J. S. M. P. E.
FIG. 11. Machine for utilizing opaque cellophane adhesive.
forated paper preventing successive layers of the tape from stick-
ing, and providing an accurate feeding method. The resultant block-
ing-out patch adheres firmly to the film (Fig. 13) and, when a sharp
punch is used, has smooth, clean edges. The hardened punch and die
should maintain their cutting edges, since the material to be cut is
thin cellophane or cellulose acetate. It was found that a patch about
1.125 inches long and 3 mils in thickness affords most satisfactory
FIG. 12.
Paper support used in new
machine.
Feb., H»M<;|
ELIMINATION OF SPLICE NOISE
143
FIG. 13. Sample of cello-
phane patch.
results, and seems to eliminate splice noises of frequency higher than
20 cps.
Tests made in both the East and the West Coast Fox studios indi-
cate that the device will prove practicable
and comparatively fast in operation. Plans
are being made to produce the machine in
quantities and to make it available to the
industry.
REFERENCE
1 CRABTREE, J. I., AND IVES, C. E.: "A New
Method of Blocking Out Splices in Sound-Film,"
J. Soc. Mot. Pict. Eng., XIV (March, 1930), No. 3.
p. 349.
DISCUSSION
MR. CRABTREE: Is the patch cemented with a
regulation cement, or with an adhesive such as is
used on surgical plaster?
MR. SPONABLE : An adhesive tape fairly new on the market, under the name of
Scotch Tissue, uses a special cement, the composition of which the manufacturer
. does not care to disclose. The tape is very adhesive, and is quite satisfactory for
re-recordings. It is possible to strip the patch off with a knife, even after it has
set for a considerable time. The cement and the opaque material are all self-
contained in the carrier roll mounted upon the machine. The thickness of the
patch is about 3 mils.
MR. STROCK: In the flashing arrangement, do you rely upon the speed of the
film and the resistance of the lamp to provide the gradation?
MR. SPONABLE: Yes.
MR. LESHING: Flashing in the printer would seem quite satisfactory if the
possibility of broken splices were eliminated ; but the moment the splice breaks,
due to the fact that the flashing mechanism is actuated by the notch at the splice,
the point of the flash is changed automatically, perhaps to the extent of one per-
foration hole, or two, or three. For that reason I believe that an adhesive ma-
terial such as the Scotch Tissue, which can be applied easily, is superior from a
practical standpoint to flashing by the notch. The new tissue is being applied as
splicing material to keep the film patches from separating during processing.
MR. SPONABLE: Mr. Leshing's criticism of the flashing printer probably has
some justification. We felt that with properly made patches, the chances of
breaking would be small. Even though a break did occur, the flashed patch was
wide enough to cover at least one splicing.
MR. SMITH: Are the patches used on release prints for theaters, or only in the
studio at the present time?
MR. SPONABLE: At the present time our principal interest in building the
machine was for use in studio re-recording. Undoubtedly it could be very useful
in the film exchanges. Incidentally, the main precaution to be taken in using the
machine is not to press the lever down when there is no film in it: the patch will
144 E. I. SPONABLE
be stuck upon the aperture plate and will have to be cleaned off before the ma-
chine can be used again.
MR. SMITH: In many prints from exchanges, especially second-runs, the
patches are very bad: they are inaccurate, and cause a distinct splice click. In
the theater there is no means of getting rid of the click except by lacquering, and in
many cases the projectionist has not the time to lacquer so many patches. If the
exchanges would use something of this kind, it would be a great assistance.
MR. SPONABLE: I believe it would be satisfactory for that purpose.
MR. CRABTREE: I wish to congratulate Mr. Sponable on revealing this
mechanism, with the thought that probably every one here has some equally
valuable gadget which could be described for the benefit of the members.
PRINCIPLES OF MEASUREMENTS OF ROOM ACOUSTICS
E. C. WENTE**
Summary. — The acoustic characteristics of a room can in great part be evaluated
from a knowledge of the rate with which sound in the room dies down when emission
from the source ceases. The physical principles underlying the relationship are
briefly discussed. It is shown by specific examples that we can obtain valuable ad-
ditional information about acoustics of a room by recording the sound level at one or
more points in the room when the frequency of the sound is continuously varied.
The function of a motion picture sound system is to transmit an
acoustic facsimile of sound generated in a studio to an audience in a
theater. This transmission occurs over a series of acoustical, mechani-
cal, optical, and electrical paths, distortion along any one of which
will impair the quality of the received sound. The distortion along
any part of the route, except those from the source to the microphone
and from the loud speaker to the listener, can be determined from a
measurement of the transmission efficiency at a number of discrete
frequencies distributed throughout the audio-frequency range.
Transmission along the acoustic paths is of such a totally different
character that here a measurement of such type is of no practical
value. For the proper adjustment of the acoustical paths reliance
has been placed principally upon aural judgments. We can tell
something about the character of sound transmission within a room
if we know its reverberation time,f or, what is equivalent, the rate
of decay of the transient tone when a steady tone is interrupted at the
source. But whatever the reverberation time may be, the quality
and level of the sound at different parts of a room may vary between
quite wide limits. The determination of the acoustics of a room
by measurement of the reverberation time is analogous to the deter-
mination of the characteristics of an electrical transmission line by
* Presented at the Spring, 1935, Meeting at Hollywood, Calif. ; re-presented
at the Fall, 1935, Meeting at Washington, D. C.
** Bell Telephone Laboratories, Inc., New York, N. Y.
f This is the time required for the average sound energy initially in a steady
state to decrease to one-millionth of its initial value.
145
146
E. C. WENTE
[J. S. M.P. E.
measurement of the transient current at the receiving end when a
voltage is interrupted at the sending end, a method sometimes used
before convenient electrical audio -frequency oscillators became avail-
able, but which is not nearly so satisfactory as a measurement of the
transmission vs. frequency characteristic.
Transmission of signals over an ordinary electrical line differs from
the transmission of sound between points in a room in two important
respects: the transients are of much longer duration and, because
of the fact that the air in a room is capable of oscillating at an ex-
ceedingly large number of different resonant modes within the audio-
frequency range, the transient oscillations have practically the same
frequency as the steady-state tone. It is for these reasons that mea-
surements of transient oscillations have, on the whole, been of more
practical value in the study of the acoustics of rooms than in the study
SOUND LEVEL
IN DECIBELS
rv> * 01
O 0 O 0
^r*
J\^^
V
^^jf
*""V-*,
^^— -v>
^v^
A
62.5 250 500 1000 2000 4000 6000 8000 9500
FREQUENCY IN CYCLES PER SECOND
FIG. 1. Recorded frequency characteristic of sound transmission in a room
when the frequency is varied rapidly.
of the characteristics of electrical systems. Since data on transient
oscillations have only a limited value even in the case of sound in
rooms, while a measurement of the transmission vs. frequency char-
acteristic has been found to be a convenient and accurate method of
evaluating the practical performance of an electrical system, it is
worth while to investigate the possibilities of determining the char-
acter of sound transmission between points in a room by a more
direct method.
A few measurements will convince any one that, in general, no
useful information can be obtained from measurement of the trans-
mission at a number of discrete frequencies, for the values will be
found to vary by many decibels with only a slight shift in the fre-
quency. More practical results are obtained if the instantaneous
pressure levels are recorded while the frequency of the source is varied
continuously. The high-speed level recorder, previously described,
is particularly suitable for making such records. The method of
Feb., 1936]
MEASUREMENT OF ROOM ACOUSTICS
147
procedure in these measurements is to generate at one point in a room
a tone of constant strength, but varying continuously in frequency,
and record at a second point the sound pressure level by means of a
microphone and the level recorder. When the recorder is set to
operate at low speed, the readings represent the levels of the power
averaged over a relatively long time-interval. If, then, the frequency
is changed rather rapidly during the recording, the readings will
represent levels of power averaged over a relatively wide frequency-
goo
910
920
930 940 950 960 970
FREQUENCY IN CYCLES PER SECOND
980
990 1000
FIG. 2. Recorded frequency characteristic of sound transmission in
a room when the frequency is varied slowly: (A) live room; (B)
damped room.
interval. Fig. 1 shows a transmission curve obtained between two
points in a room under these conditions. The frequency was varied
at a rate such as to cover the whole designated range in about l1/^
minutes. A transmission characteristic of this type will show whether
speech or music transmitted between the two points will have the
proper balance between the high- and the low-frequency components.
If the high frequencies predominate, the sound will be characterized
by shrillness; and if the low frequencies overbalance, the sound will
have a muffled quality. Other quality characteristics are indicated
when there is a rise or a depression in the transmission curve at
148
E. C. WENTE
[J. S. M. p. E.
intermediate frequencies. Similarly, measurements in the studio
can show something about the character of sound reproduction that
would result from various placements of the pick-up microphone.
The transmission curve obtained in the manner just described does
not tell a sufficiently complete story to enable us to say whether the
transmission between the sending and receiving points for speech or
4.13
325
REVERBERATION TIME IN SECONDS
2.06 1.38
1.03
300
275
250
225
200
175
150
125
100
75
50
25
\
\
150
400
450
200 250 300 350
TOTAL ABSORPTION IN SABINES
FIG. 3. Relation between irregularity of transmission vs. frequency
characteristic and reverberation time; capacity of room, 10,000 cubic
feet.
music will be the best possible, or even satisfactory. As far as we
can tell from these curves, the room might be entirely too dead
acoustically for music, or so live that received speech would be
quite unintelligible. Nevertheless, if records taken in this manner
show an improper balance, we are safe in concluding that transmission
over the measured path will not be satisfactory.
Now let the operating speed of the recorder be set to a high value
and the frequency be varied slowly while the positions of the micro-
phone and the loud speaker and other conditions are kept unchanged.
Feb., 1936]
MEASUREMENT OF ROOM ACOUSTICS
149
Under these conditions the recorder will indicate levels of sound pres-
sure averaged over a small frequency-interval. A portion of a curve
so obtained is shown in the upper part of Fig. 2. The frequency range
here given is only 100 cycles, extending from 900 to 1000 cps. Al-
though the total change in frequency is only 10 per cent, we find that
the curve has innumerable peaks and valleys and that the transmis-
sion varies through a range of at least 40 decibels. If, upon measure-
ment, we should find any part of an electrical communication channel
20
900 910 920 930 940 950 960 970 980 990 1000
FREQUENCY IN CYCLES PER SECOND
FIG. 4. Transmission vs. frequency characteristics to live and to dead
parts of a room.
to have a characteristic as irregular as this one, we should probably
conclude that the system would be incapable of transmitting speech
intelligibly. As a matter of fact we should be correct in our conclu-
sion, for this curve was taken in a room that was acoustically so
reverberant that it was almost impossible to carry on a conversation
between the sending and the receiving points.
Following these measurements the room was given an acoustic
treatment by the introduction of sound-absorbing materials such
that the transmission as judged by aural observation was practically
ideal. All other conditions were kept the same. The transmission
characteristic now obtained over the same frequency range is shown
150 E. C. WENTE [J. S. M. P. E.
in the lower part of Fig. 2. It will be noted that there are relatively
few large dips and that the number and extent of the small irregulari-
ties are greatly reduced. The change in the reverberant quality of
the room is thus seen to be easily observable from the change in the
character of these transmission curves. This change in character
can be measured and related to the reverberant quality of the room,
or, more accurately, to the reverberant quality of the sound trans-
mission between any two points within the room. One method of
evaluating the degree of irregularity of the curve in a given frequency-
interval is to take the sum of the pressures of all the minimum points
and subtract the result from the sum of the pressures of all the
maximum points. In Fig. 3, values so obtained for a 100-cycle band-
width are plotted against the reverberation time of the room. The
observed points are seen to lie well along a smooth curve.
We might well ask, if there is such a close correlation between
reverberation time and the degree of irregularity in the transmission
curves, why not simply measure the reverberation time, which can be
accomplished within a few minutes by means of the high-speed level
recorder. The values plotted in Fig. 3 were obtained in a room in
which the sound was fairly uniformly distributed, and both loud
speaker and microphone were as far removed as possible from the
neighborhood of absorbing surfaces. The reverberation time when
measured at various points in a room will have about the same value,
for it is determined primarily by the rate of decay of the sound density
averaged throughout the whole room; but the degree of irregularity
of the transmission to different points in the room can vary mark-
edly, as it depends upon the configuration of the room and the distri-
bution of the sound-absorbing surfaces. The difference is illustrated
by the curves of Fig. 4, which were obtained with two different micro-
phone placements in the same room. For the upper curve the micro-
phone was located in a part of the room where most of the surfaces
were acoustically hard; and for the lower curve, in a part of the room
where the absorption was relatively high. Measurements of the
reverberation times at the two points would yield the same value
although the forms of the decay curves, which could be determined
with a high-speed level recorder, might show characteristic differences.
The reverberation time of a room is independent of the directional
characteristic of the loud speaker used as the source of sound. The
character of the sound received from a loud speaker in an auditorium
does, however, depend upon its directivity. By measurement of
Feb., 1936]
MEASUREMENT OF ROOM ACOUSTICS
151
the degree of irregularity in the transmission curve, with a particular
loud speaker set in a particular way, a much better idea is obtained
of the reverberant quality of the sound that is received when the loud
speaker is used under the same conditions for the reproduction of
speech or music. Similarly, with the recorder set to operate at slow
speed, curves taken at various parts of the room with a particular
speaker set-up will show the levels and the degree of balance between
the high and the low frequencies of speech or music received at vari-
ous parts in an auditorium.
Various other acoustic effects may be determined from transmission
20
40
500
I5OO 2000 3000 4000 5000
FREQUENCY IN CYCLES PER SECOND
FIG. 5. Transmission vs. frequency characteristic between points in a
room when a reflecting surface is placed near the microphone.
curves. When a microphone is placed near a reflecting surface there
will be noticeable interference between the direct and the reflected
sound, which may give to the reproduced sound a muffled quality.
The lower curve of Fig. 5 is a transmission curve taken at a slow re-
corder speed when a reflecting surface was placed near the microphone.
The difference in path between the direct and the reflected sound was
about 15 inches. The upper curve was obtained under similar
conditions, but without the reflector. A comparison of the two curves
shows that the reflector produces periodic variations in the trans-
mission, which must have a noticeable effect upon sound quality.
Although the curve of Fig. 2(B), which is representative of a room
having good acoustic characteristics, is relatively smooth when com-
152
E. C. WENTE
u:s. M. p. E.
pared with that of Fig. 2(A), the transmission characteristic is much
more irregular than that of most electrical communication channels.
The fact that speaking conditions are good in spite of these irregulari-
ties is to be explained partly by the nature of speech, which is never
60
? 50
0 40
30
> 20
o'°
1°
ou
50
30
V\
/w^i/ty
yU
"">
/i/to
/w\
w
Lrvy
liV/
VvA/V
10
0
C
750
760
770
850
780 790 800 810 820 830 8-
FREQUENCY IN CYCLES PER SECOND
FIG. 6. Transmission vs. frequency characteristics under various re-
ceiving conditions: (.4) single microphone; (B) six microphones con-
nected in parallel; (C) six microphones, each provided with rectifier;
output circuits of rectifiers connected in series.
sustained sufficiently long to set up a steady-state sound field,
and partly by a phenomenon in binaural hearing. Because of the
spatial separation of our ears, the sound pressures at the two ears will,
in general, be different both in magnitude and in phase. If trans-
mission measurements are made with two microphones at the receiv-
ing end connected in series and separated by the same distance as
Feb., 19.WI MEASUREMENT OF ROOM ACOUSTICS 1 .").*>
our ears, we shall find that the transmission vs. frequency relation
is as irregular in character as it is when the measurements are made
with a single microphone, because the resultant voltage is propor-
tional to the vector sum of the pressures at the two microphones. It
is an experimental fact, however, that the loudness sensation is in-
dependent of the phase relation between the pressures at the two
ears. If, for instance, the two ears are stimulated by sound pressures
of the same frequency, the loudness is the same when they are in
opposite phase as when they are in phase. We can, therefore, more
nearly simulate binaural reception in the transmission measurements
by using two microphones, each provided with a rectifier, the output
circuits of which are connected in series to the level recorder; for
in this case the resultant voltage will be practically independent of
the phase relation of the pressures at the two microphones. The
contrast between binaural and monaural reception is accentuated
if the measurements are made with a greater number of microphones.
The upper curve of Fig. 6 shows the transmission characteristic ob-
tained when a single microphone is used at the receiving end. The
middle curve was obtained when the single microphone was replaced
by six microphones connected in parallel. The irregularities in the
transmission characteristics are seen to be of the same order of mag-
nitude in the two cases. The lower curve was obtained when each
of the six microphones was provided with a rectifier and the output
circuits of the rectifiers connected in series to the level recorder.
This curve is obviously smoother than either of the other two, from
which we conclude that in going from monaural to binaural listening
in a room, the effect is similar to that produced by a reduction in the
reverberation time of the room. However, comparison between Figs.
2(B) and 6(C) shows that the reduction in the irregularities obtained
by increased absorption and by multiple microphones with rectifiers
is not exactly of the same character : in one case the rate of decay of
sound in the room is altered and in the other it is not. It is well
known that when sound is reproduced by microphone and loud
speaker, the reproduced sound has a more reverberant quality than
when perceived directly by binaural listening in the source room.
To reduce this quality it has been common and good practice to in-
crease the damping of the source room beyond the optimal for direct
listening. It is, however, not possible by this expedient to get ob-
jectively quite the same change in the reverberant quality as is
achieved subjectively by binaural hearing.
SERVICING SOUND MOTION PICTURE REPRODUCING
EQUIPMENT*
C. C. AIKEN**
Summary. — -An outline of the problems encountered in theaters following the in-
stallation of sound equipment, and the determination of standards of performance.
The methods and value of gathering experimental data on the operation of equipment
in the field, both for servicing and laboratory practice, are discussed, as well as the
effects of variations in recording and in the tastes of the public, both from the exhibit-
ors' and the public's point of view, and the effect of intelligent servicing upon the box-
office.
After sound motion picture reproducing equipment is installed
in a theater, the following problems are faced :
(1) Maintaining high-quality reproduction.
(2) Avoiding faulty operation and failures.
(3) Adjusting to changing recordings.
(4) Adjusting to changing standards.
(5) Modernizing when feasible.
(6) Gaining experience leading to further improvement.
The maintenance of high-quality reproduction depends largely upon
the same factors that are involved in design :
(a) The beam from the exciter lamp must be uniform, steady in intensity, of
the proper size, and vibrationless.
(&) The movement of the film must be free from variation in linear speed,
weaving, or fluttering.
(c) The electrical system must be free from extraneous noise or distortion,
and must have sufficient amplification and a proper frequency response
characteristic.
( d) The conversion from electrical impulses to sound waves must be without
extraneous noise or distortion.
(e) The sound waves must be directed so as to provide uniform results
throughout the auditorium, without allowing the room itself to intro-
duce objectionable factors.
The standards of performance and the methods of measuring items
(a) to (d) are determined in the laboratory in connection with the
design. By extremely close contact between the field and the labora-
* Presented at the Spring, 1935, Meeting at Hollywood, Calif.
** RCA Manufacturing Co., Camden, N. J.
154
SERVICING" SOUND EQUIPMENT l.V>
tory groups, the initial standards and methods and the subsequent
changes are made known and put into operation in the field.
The final criterion of quality is the human ear ; but among various
persons the response of the ear varies enormously. Audiometer
tests show a variation of as much as 40 db. among individuals. For
a given person, the ear responds differently from hour to hour. To
avoid having such variation introduce inconsistencies, the standards
set up in the laboratory, in so far as possible, are expressed in terms
of objective measurements rather than subjective sensations.
In many cases, the objective laboratory methods have been found
to be directly applicable to field use, providing accurate, stable stand-
ards for the maintenance of high-quality reproduction. In cases
when the ear must be relied upon without the aid of objective mea-
surements, it is necessary to devise special tests by means of which
defects in reproduction are caused to be accentuated so that the
trained ear can readily detect them regardless of the listener's state
of fatigue. In this respect it is important that the field engineer
develop an acute sense of hearing by long and continuous training.
He must have an excellent standard of comparison and must have
had long experience listening to reproduction under many conditions
if he is to be able to diagnose equipment accurately to determine
whether it is in the best of condition or not.
The field practice to be followed in correcting faulty functioning and
failures is determined by experience. The proper procedure is the
one that works best by actual test. Systematic accumulation of ex-
perience by a large field force in thousands of theaters forms the best
possible basis upon which to lay the foundations for these procedures.
In the same way that the design of equipment changes from year to
year as new and better methods are developed, field procedures go
through an ever-improving evolution.
Closely allied with the application of field experience to field prac-
tice is the application of field experience to engineering and research.
Theory and practice are prone to diverge unless theory is constantly
checked against actual results. The sound motion picture art can
not develop at the speed it should unless it takes full advantage of
its experience. By watching the leaders of the industry, smaller
companies are prevented from diverging too far from the path of
sound progress, but for the good of the motion picture business as a
whole, the larger companies may not neglect to follow the products
of their development.
156 C. C. AIKEN [J. S. M. P. E.
The recordings of some producers are lacking in the bass; others
over-emphasize the bass notes and in some the high-frequency re-
sponse is so garbled as to make it necessary to reduce the highs. As
a rule, a satisfactory compromise best suited for the product being
shown at the time can be found. But for best performance, changes
in the reproducer characteristics are required to be made when the
majority of features shown in a theater are obtained from a different
producer or when a change is made in the recording characteristics.
Fads introduced in the march toward perfect reproduction carry
us too far, first in one direction and then in another. At one time
popular opinion required crisp speech of optimal intelligibility; and,
at another time, booming, roaring, low-frequency response was de-
manded. As a matter of good business policy it is necessary to ad-
just the theater equipment in accordance with the prevailing tastes,
and to change them as the tastes vary.
In spite of, or, perhaps because of, the vicissitudes of the show
business, progress has been rapid. New tastes, new developments,
new requirements have made obsolete in a few years the early theater
equipment (and should have made obsolete much of the recording
apparatus), demanding either the purchase of new and modern equip-
ment or a major and almost equally expensive though less effective
renovation of the old equipment. As improvements become avail-
able, they can, and should, be made in order that the existing installa-
tions may be kept as modern as possible.
So far the problem has been viewed largely from the standpoint of
the technician. Exhibitors are interested in the problem from an
entirely different standpoint : that of dollars and cents. Here is the
problem of expressing an intangible "quality of reproduction" in
terms of tangible ' 'box-office receipts." The many variables, e. g.,
entertainment value of pictures shown, general business conditions,
amount and kind of advertising, etc., make a quantitative analysis
impossible or inaccurate. Certain facts can, however, be established
from which to draw conclusions, and by checking such conclusions
against a sufficiently large number of experiences, determine their
accuracy.
Most important of all factors to the exhibitor is the maintenance of
high-quality reproduction. In every audience there is an increas-
ingly large percentage of music lovers and critical listeners. Rarely
do they analyze the sound equipment when it is "off color," but
rather do they say, "I did not enjoy that picture," or "Her voice is
Feb., 1936] SERVICING SOUND EQUIPMENT 157
not so good," blaming the actor or the producer and discouraging
their friends from attending the theater. This reacts to the detri-
ment of not only the one exhibitor, but slightly "off color" sound in
neighboring theaters can cause a general degeneration of interest
in pictures and adversely affect the attendance at all theaters. An
exhibitor should pray, "Let my competitor have obviously poor sound
or very good sound, but let him not have fairly good sound which will
eliminate the thrill of a glorious voice."
The experience of many exhibitors has proved that music lovers
and critical listeners are found as frequently in the poorer districts as
on Broadway. Experience has proved, also, that a decrease of at-
tendance occurs as a direct result of imperfect tonal quality. Critical
listeners and music lovers are the first to lose interest. The poorer
the quality the larger is the number of patrons affected. Many
patrons will have lost their show-going habit before noticeable dis-
satisfaction becomes evident.
We have already named the factors that enter into the maintenance
of high-quality reproduction. Projectionists have risen splendidly
to the difficult job of operating and caring for reproducer apparatus
so as to minimize the possible change of quality between service calls.
That such change of quality does occur is attested by the fact that no
manufacturer of sound motion picture apparatus has long existed who
did not set up and maintain a policy of periodic service. From the
exhibitor's point of view the bankruptcy of a manufacturer is sad;
but the exhibitor is much more concerned with the fact that the imme-
diate cause of the bankruptcy lies in the theater, and not in the factory.
Because of the impossibility of expressing the subjective quality of
sound in per cent, the discussion thus far has been qualitative, not
quantitative. Quantitative study can be made by comparing the cost
of routine service against the loss in box-office receipts occasioned by
impaired quality of reproduction. If the loss in box-office receipts
just balances the investment in a periodic service call, the result of the
investment is increased satisfaction, security from interruption, and
peace of mind for the exhibitor for no net change in his finances. If
the period between routine calls is too great, the decrease in box-
office revenue exceeds the cost of additional service, and the reputa-
tion and net profit of the theater will suffer. A surprisingly small
percentage increase in daily attendance is required to balance the
cost of periodic service.
VISUAL ACCOMPANIMENT*
R. WOLF**
Summary. — The principles of producing "Visual Accompaniments" to musical
renditions for the theater are briefly described, as follows; (1) natural scenes for por-
traying the "musical mood" of the musical composition; (2} the changing and blend-
ing of beautiful paintings to interpret the mood, known as the Savage Method; and (3)
the use of abstract color forms as a means of interpretation. The technic followed in
applying the two latter methods is described in detail.
In the days of the silent motion picture it was customary to furnish
background music as an accompaniment to the picture. In the larger
theaters using orchestras, it developed quite naturally that the or-
chestra opened the performance with a musical composition played
with the house fully lighted and the curtain down ; in smaller theaters
very frequently only a piano was used for this purpose.
With the advent of sound pictures, however, there developed a
general tendency to depend upon the picture and its accompanying
sound alone. Spoken dialog became all-important, and the musical
accompaniment was eliminated. This is unfortunate, because music
has a universal appeal. Occasionally, attempts have been made to
supply this lack of music from records unaccompanied by visual ac-
tion, but this has been found to be unsatisfactory to the audience.
Believing that good music has a place in the motion picture theater
program, the work described below was undertaken. It has been
designated by the broad title of "Visual Accompaniment." The
favorable audience reception to the results of this work, to our mind,
has justified our expectations. This accompaniment is somewhat
abstract in its nature and is determined by the music, unlike the usual
sound picture in which whatever music is used is dictated by the ac-
tion. To meet the needs of the motion picture theater, basically,
this means the creation of a motion picture film embodying excellent
sound recording of a suitable musical composition, accompanied upon
* Presented at a Meeting of the Atlantic Coast Section at New York, N. Y.,
Jan. 9, 1935.
** Electrical Research Products, Inc., New York, N. Y.
158
VISUAL ACCOMPANIMENT 159
the screen by a visual interpretation in mobile color. Visual accom-
paniment films, as described in this paper, can be used advantage-
ously by any properly equipped motion picture theater.
The interpretation of music in color is by no means new. Con-
siderable work in this field has been done from time to time. The
first comprehensive treatment of this subject is probably contained
in a book, Experiments Concerning the History of Harmony in Painting
Generally and Color Harmony Specifically, with Comparisons to Music
and Many Practical References, by Johann Leonard Hoffman, pub-
lished in Halle in 1786. In 1894, Alexander Wallace Rimington con-
structed an apparatus for color accompaniment to music. Other
modern investigators of this subject include H. Beau and Bertrand-
Taillet, Herman Schroeder, Hans Bartolo Brand, Emil Petschnig,
Alexander Skrjabin, Alexander Laszlo, and many others. Skrjabin
designed a color piano and wrote special compositions for this instru-
ment, of which his Prometheus was performed in New York in 1916;
be it said, however, with little public success. Even now there is in
New York a school that conducts a regular course in the relationship
of music and color. Considerable work is also being done at present
with color organs, with which an individual performer gives his im-
pressions in color of suitable musical compositions.
However, all these efforts are concerned primarily with the com-
bination and interpretation of music and color alone, giving little, if
any, regard to form. In our development work we have found it ad-
visable to pay some attention to form. As already mentioned, we
begin in each case with a well known musical selection, recorded with
exceptionally good quality, and produce upon a motion picture film
a visual accompaniment in one of the following three ways :
(1) Natural scenes are used to portray the 'musical mood' of the composition.
For example, Mendelssohn's Fingal's Cave is interpreted by natural scenes of sea
and rocky shore, depicting, in the ever-changing form of the waves, the mood of
the music. The photography, of course, is in natural color.
(2) Beautiful paintings constantly changing and blending are used to interpret
the mood of the music. This method, conceived by the eminent painter and
sculptor, Eugene F. Savage, will, in this paper, be referred to as the "Savage
Method." The basis of this treatment is to create motion pictures in natural
colors from miniature stage sets which are correct, not only from the standpoint
of composition and color, but also as works of high artistic merit. The body of
the paper is devoted to discussing this method in detail.
(3) Abstract color forms are used to interpet the musical composition. This
will be referred to as the "Abstract Method," and while described, will not be
discussed in as much detail as the "Savage Method."
160 R. WOLF [J. S. M. P. E.
MUSICAL MOODS
Pictures made by the method described under (1) have been re-
leased commercially under the title of Musical Moods. This method
is the most conservative of the three to be described. A suitable
nature scene is photographed in natural colors. Considerable extra
footage is taken and the final picture is the result of careful cutting as
well as of depicting a scene appropriate to the music.
THE SAVAGE METHOD
The description of this method will be based upon the visual ac-
companiment to Schubert's Unfinished Symphony. There is no
authentic record of the composer's visual conception of this work.
Program notations by eminent musicians and critics covering many
years have agreed upon some symbolism, however, although in very
general terms.
The life and early death of Franz Schubert come to mind in the
Unfinished Symphony and are carried through the visual accompani-
ment:
"At the opening chords, or narrative, we are led into a gracious and beautiful
world of mountain heights and castles, mirrored in the depths of a river, which is
seen beyond a sculptured balustrade and varied foliage. With the romantic love
motif, two figures appear, seated under a spreading tree by the water's edge.
The warm and engaging atmosphere of the setting gives way to a somber tone,
the rapture of the music is brusquely interrupted, a sudden storm overwhelms the
scene. As it clears, the man stands by the sea gazing at the heights as though
challenged by them. Two muses move across the face of the moon above him,
encouraging his aspirations.
"The scene changes to one of sheer barren heights. He has given all and
gained the heights, but is stopped by a trumpet blast sounding his mortal and
inexorable doom. A storm of stressful and clamorous music whirls about him,
lightning threatens him from above, waves reach for him from below, until a
rainbow appears with its promise of respite.
"The scene fades to a pastoral valley. The man kneels by the river; his
strength is spent. The muses appear again, and give direction to his destined end.
In the last scene he is prone, overwhelmed by his efforts and vanished hopes. He
lies upon the brink of a chasm into which the river is falling. The ascending
vapors carry his last aspirations heavenward ; the muses gather over him in the
vapor, and with the brusque chords of the closing music, take him with them up-
ward and out of the picture."
The music, as is always the case, is first recorded and carefully
timed. Significant passages are noted and timed. In this way, a
general layout sheet is compiled. It should be noted here that no
Feb., 1936]
VISUAL ACCOMPANIMENT
161
$.
G::
attempt is made at close synchronization of music and action. How-
ever, a few key points in music and action are made to synchronize
generally. Fig. 1 shows the general layout sheet. Finished water
color sketches of the important scenes are then
made.
The preliminary work having thus been com-
pleted, it is necessary to prepare the settings for
the miniature stage. This stage is shown sche-
matically in Fig. 2. A set of planes are provided,
lettered A to F. In the actual stage, these planes
are oil paintings upon acetate sheeting. Care
must be taken in laying out these paintings from
the original sketches so that the proper perspec-
tive, which necessitates changes in dimensions as
the planes progress up-stage, is taken into con-
sideration.
Moving clouds and scenes are painted upon long
strips of acetate sheeting and wound upon rollers.
These rollers can be mounted so as to move the
painting either vertically or laterally. Movement,
as well as its acceleration and deceleration, is con-
trolled by mechanical means. The fact that in
some cases a total travel of the scene of 5 inches
is distributed over 500 frames of film gives an idea
of the required refinement of the mechanical
devices.
In Act I a sculptured balustrade also is moved
across the stage, frame by frame, mechanically
controlled in a manner similar to the control of
the rollers. The various movements, of course,
must be calculated not only for the positions of
the planes, but also for their relative speeds with
respect to each other. The effect desired is a
changing panoramic view as an observer walks
along the banks of a river. Various effects, such
as a water ripple caused by an unseen fountain,
are obtained with especially built effect machines, also operated
frame by frame. Some of the figures are modelled in relief upon the
acetate sheets. When only a relatively short movement of an
element of a scene is desired, the element is painted upon an acetate
162
R. WOLF
[J. S. M. P. E.
sheet, mounted upon a "traveller," or frame, fastened to a carriage
suspended from an overhead rail. "Universal" frames permit lateral
and vertical movements to be made either separately or simultane-
ously in combination.
The main lighting units consist of three-circuit — red, blue, and
white — top and bottom strips. These strips are equipped with
Holophane diffusing lenses to provide substantially even illumina-
20 Inches 30
FIG. 2. Dimensions of miniature stage.
tion upon each plane. The units are so designed and placed that the
"spill" between planes is negligible. Each circuit is separately con-
trolled by means of a multi-point rheostat, affording a variation of
light intensity from zero to full in increments too small to be perceived
by the eye as definite steps. In addition to these main units, sepa-
rately controlled spotlights, both white and colored, are used when-
ever necessary. Each light circuit is designated by a number.
The various movements upon the stage, as well as the lights, are
manually controlled. A regular routine for the sequence of these
Feb., 1936] . VISUAL ACCOMPANIMENT 163
movements is established. The average time-interval between
exposures during which all movements, light settings, and exposures
have to be made, is 12 seconds. With simple action, time-intervals
of three seconds between exposures are not uncommon.
The three-color Technicolor process is used to photograph the pic-
ture. The exposures are of the order of three seconds per frame.
Correct exposure is determined by means of test-strips of the actual
scene to be taken. The permissible contrast ratios are also deter-
mined by means of these test-strips.
FIG. 3. Arrangement of camera and tunnel leading to
plane A of stage.
For exposure control, an electrical timing circuit was used during
the early part of the work. The time was controlled by a condenser
discharge circuit, suitable resistances in which determined the desired
time periods. This circuit was arranged to work over a range of
V* second to 6 seconds. An Ilex shutter was placed in front of the
lens and the camera was equipped with a single-frame advancing de-
vice. Through suitable relays operating the shutter release and the
camera-tripping device, the exposure and advancement of the film
to the next frame became automatic when one control-button was
pressed. This control-button was located at the stage, and its op-
eration formed the last link in the chain of operations of scene move-
ments between exposures for each frame.
During the later part of the work, the electrical timing device and
Ilex shutter were replaced by a high-ratio reduction gear, and the
regular camera shutter was used. However, the automatic control-
164
R. WOLF
[J. S. M. P. E.
button operating the stop-motion camera attachment was retained.
Fundamental design work indicates that many, if not all, of the move-
ments, as well as the light changes, can be controlled mechanically,
thus making it possible to photograph a given scene entirely auto-
matically.
The camera is placed approximately 21 feet in front of the A plane
shown in Fig. 2. The space between the camera and the A plane is
totally enclosed in a dull black painted tunnel (Fig. 3). All stage
fixtures, as well as the floor and the ceiling, are also painted dull
black. Black curtains enclosing the back and stretched across the
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FIG. 4. Light positions ; Act I, Unfinished Symphony.
front of the stage from ceiling to floor, with a light-tight opening
fastened about the mouth of the tunnel, are also used. This arrange-
ment permits using the apparatus in the rear of a large room without
interference from daylight. It was found that the tunnel between
the camera and the stage was important to avoid reflections upon the
acetate sheet in the A plane. Fig. 3 is a general view of the set-up.
It would have been possible to work with much smaller paintings
and a much shorter camera distance if only the Technicolor process
were contemplated. However, it was desirable for experimental
Feb., 1936]
VISUAL ACCOMPANIMENT
165
purposes to employ other color processes as well. The focal length
of the only lens available for one of these processes, and the fact that
the lens could not be stopped down, made the rather large dimensions
necessary.
Now to return to the description of the production of the Visual
Accompaniment for the Unfinished Symphony: It was decided that
five acts were necessary to illustrate the composition. An act, in
this connection, means a complete change of scenery, requiring en-
tirely new stage settings. The elements available for the production
were still paintings, moving paintings, special effects, and light and
color changes. From the general layout sheet (Fig. 1) detail layouts
are made for each scene. These layouts are timed in seconds and in
frames. An action layout covers the stage, and a layout for light
changes covers both light-intensity and color changes.
STOP 0 / t 3 4 5 6 7 « 9 K> // tZ O U /5
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FIG. 5. Action chart; Act I, Unfinished Symphony.
As a typical example, consider Act I. This act extended over 122
seconds, or 2928 frames. It called for the following stage settings:
(1) Moving clouds in plane A, requiring a roller.
(2) A sculptured balustrade in plane B, mounted upon a movable platform.
(3) Painted scenery in plane Cl/t, requiring a roller.
(4) Painted effects, such as swan and boats, requiring a "traveler," in plane D.
(5) Background clouds, moving across the scene and upward, in plane Z)1/:.
requiring a "universal."
(6) A general background in plane E, requiring a still frame.
Fig. 4 shows the light layout. The figures and letters refer to the
control circuits. The lights required were:
(1 ) Top and bottom strips, plane A .
(2) Top strip, plane Al/t.
166
R. WOLF
[J. S. M. P. E.
(5) Top strip, plane C.
(4) Top strip, plane E.
(5) Spotlight in front of and below plane A, shining upon part of plane A
through an opening in the tunnel.
(6) Two spotlights upon stage right, directly in front of plane A .
(7) Spotlight upon stage left, in front of plane A .
(8) Small sharp spot, G, upon stage left, to illuminate statues upon balustrade.
(9) Spotlights upon stage left, shining on plane Al/z-
(10) Spotlight upon stage left, shining on plane C.
(11) Spotlight upon stage right, shining on plane E.
(12) Spotlight between planes C and E, shining upon plane E.
(13) Effect spot between planes Dl/z and E, to produce effect of water ripple
upon plane E.
The action and light changes were divided into 15 periods of 192
frames each. Fig. 5 shows the action chart, and Fig. 6 the general
light action layout, the figures in which represent the rheostat set-
tings : 24 represents maximal light for the strips, and 48 for the spots.
Fig. 5 indicates that plane A is operated throughout the take at a
speed of 10 inches for 192 frames up to the beginning of period 11,
and 15 inches for 192 frames from period 11 to the end. A suitable
smooth acceleration distributed over period 10 has to be made in
this case. Plane B (the balustrade) is operated at a speed of 9J/4
inches for 192 frames from the beginning of the action to the end of
period 11, and then stopped, inasmuch as by that time the balustrade
is out of the picture. Plane C1/* is operated at a speed of 89/ie inches
mm:
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FIG. 6. Light Chart; Act I, Unfinished Symphony.
Feb., 1936] VISUAL ACCOMPANIMENT 167
for 192 frames to the end of period 13, and stopped. Plane D is oper-
ated a total of 20 inches for 576 frames from period ll/2 to 4l/2, and
stopped, to be operated again 15l/2 inches for 576 frames over
periods 10, 11, and 12, and stopped. Plane Dl/2 is operated 21 inches
for 576 frames over periods 10, 11, and 12, and stopped. The water
ripple is operated at a speed of 2x/2 seconds per revolution (time being
screen time) from the beginning of the action to the end of period 11,
and stopped.
Fig. 6 shows the light changes for each 192 frames. Main strip 9,
for instance, does not change from an original setting of 15 for the
first 192 frames. From frame 192
to 384 the light increases from 15
to 20; and from frame 384 to 576,
from 20 to 24. From frame 576
to 768 it decreases from 24 to 12,
and remains at that value to frame
1 152. From frame 1 152 to frame
1344 the light decreases from 12 to
6, and remains at that value to
frame 1728. From frame 1728 to
£ -ir\nr\ -^ t e FIG. 7. Control desk and frame
frame 1 920 it decreases from 6 to counter.
0, and remains at 0 to frame 2496.
From frame 2496 the light increases from 0 to 18, From frame 2688
to 2928 the light decreases from 18 to 4. The last period extends over
240 frames to cover the lap dissolve.
The act was rehearsed by setting significant scenes. The light
settings, as well as the positions of the various paintings, were noted.
It became, then, a relatively simple matter to work out the light and
color transitions between the scenes.
The photographing of a scene is controlled from a desk at which the
light action and movement charts are kept. The light changes are
read out as they occur. At the desk an electrical counter connected
with a push button on the stage is installed to show which frame is
being photographed. Fig. 7 shows the desk and counter.
A few figures on the economics of producing the visual accompani-
ment for Schubert's Unfinished Symphony might be appropriate.
The personnel required consisted of
2 Artists to make the paintings
1 Camera crew
3 Operators for scene movements and light settings
168 R. WOLF [j. S. M. P. E.
1 Operator at the control desk
1 General supervisor to coordinate and direct the various activities
In an elapsed time of 325 working hours, 4400 man-hours (not
counting the time of the camera crew) were required to complete the
production. These man-hours can be broken down as follows :
Operation Man-Hours
Making sketches 240
Painting 1200
General preparation 590
Rehearsals 1030
Taking the picture 1340
Total 4400.
It is interesting to note that of 208 hours' actual working time spent
for taking the picture, only 66 Y2 hours represent shooting time, and
141 */2 hours were used for setting up and making light adjustments.
Further studies and fundamental design indicate that with com-
plete mechanization of the equipment and reduction in size of the
paintings, the schedule would not exceed :
Operation Man-Hours
Making sketches 240
Painting 600
Rehearsals, etc. 250
Taking the picture 10
Total 1100
THE ASTRACT METHOD
The ' 'abstract method" differs considerably from the Savage
method, both as to fundamentals and practical realization. The
basic thought underlying it is that music suggests color to many per-
sons. The opposite concept, that color suggests music, is also not un-
known. It is futile to discuss theories of this method, because there are
as many theories as there are commentators on the subject. Instead,
a few premises used in the production to be described will be stated :
(1 ) Color is suggested by the "musical mood" of the composition : light colors for
gay tunes, and dark colors for somber themes.
(2) Color is combined with abstract forms suggestive of the rhythm of the
music. Both form and color must be correct from an artistic point of view.
(5) Close synchronization of music, form, and color must be established.
In order to produce the visual accompaniment by this method, it is
Feb., 1936]
VISUAL ACCOMPANIMENT
U
r
necessary to associate a color-film with previously recorded music.
Part of Ponchielli's Dance of the Hours was chosen as a suitable com-
position for this method. Mrs. Josephine M. Wolf, an artist who has
made an extensive study of musical themes in color, was chosen to
create a set of paintings giving her interpretation of the composition
in abstract form and color. The artist required that some of the
forms used in the paintings must appear to move in synchronism with
the music and also that the intensity of the light must change.
In the picture upon the screen would appear colored forms of ab-
stract shape. These forms change with the
music, in shape as well as in color. Through
lap-dissolves or wipe-offs, new sets of figures
and colors would appear, again to be followed
by different designs. When the main theme
of the music would repeat, the designs and
colors would also repeat, although not
necessarily in exactly the same shape or
hue. The whole picture would follow the
music closely, giving to the audience an
impression rather than something definite
to follow, thereby further subordinating the
picture to the music.
To furnish the apparent movement of
forms, it was decided to make use of a
curious phenomenon that had been ob-
served some time ago. If a number of
lighted areas of different intensities are
projected upon a screen simultaneously
from different projectors, and the illumina-
tion of one of these areas is changed at a
fair rate, the size of the area seems to
increase with an increase in intensity and to
decrease in size with a decrease in intensity.
By using suitable shapes of areas any ap-
parent desired motion can be created. By
using different colors for the light areas the apparent motion
increases. An illusion of stereoscopic depth can be accomplished by
skillful use of this phenomenon.
To carry out the idea, a set-up is made using three spotlights
equipped with lantern slide projection attachments and a screen made
SCREEN
h —
FIG. 8. Projector set-up
for Dance of the Hours; ab-
stract method.
170
R. WOLF
fj. S. M. P. E.
of flashed opal glass. A sketch showing the set-up is shown in Fig. 8,
where A, B, and C denote the projectors. The lantern slides used
with these projectors are made as follows : The artist makes the de-
sign complete in water colors upon sheets about 8 by 10 inches.
These designs are translated into their essential components ; that is,
a scene consists, for example, of a background, a foreground, and
light rays. Fig. 9 shows three such components for a typical
scene. The outlines of the components are carefully traced upon a
sheet of heavy white paper, and any essential design features are also
lightly sketched in. The designs on the paper are cut out, and the
separate parts are glued to black cardboard, one to each card-
board. Inasmuch as the designs are cut out of the same paper, there
is, of course, no difficulty in maintaining the correct relationship of
the parts. The assembled cardboards are numbered and marked in
a uniform manner.
These cardboards, with their white paper cut-outs, are photo-
graphed. For simplicity, a Leica camera giving a picture 1 by iy2
FIG. 9. Components for a typical scene for Dance of the Hours; abstract
method.
inches upon motion picture film is used. The film used is positive
stock, which is developed to as high a contrast as attainable.
From these negatives lantern slides are made by projection print-
ing. Inasmuch as three projectors are used, the existing parallax
has to be taken into account when making the slides. The slides
also are developed to maximum contrast, leaving the glass clear at the
unexposed portions. They are then hand-colored, using transparent
aniline dyes.
The projectors are three Kliegl spotlights equipped with slide
carriers and 15-inch projection lenses. The lamps used are 1000-
watt, 120-volt spotlights, carefully mounted with mirror reflectors.
Means are provided to adjust the positions of the projector lenses
slightly to compensate for small irregularities in the slides and the
i'Vi>.. MM.] VISUAL ACCOMPANIMENT 171
slide carriers. The projection angles are 3°24' lateral, 5° 19' vertical.
The lamps in the projectors are connected through dimmers, per-
mitting a voltage variation of 57 to 118 volts, corresponding to 15 to
140 foot-candles measured at the screen.
Close synchronization of music and picture appeared to be a diffi-
cult problem. By using the following method, however, it was
solved rather simply : A score of the composition is carefully marked
for action and light changes. This score is used as a general guide.
A Movieola is set up with a sound-track and a roll of film carrying
frame marks, and is operated barely fast enough to permit following
the tune. At each predetermined important point a mark is made
upon the frame -marked film with grease pencil, and wipes and fades
are marked with lines progressing over succeeding frames, the whole
action being carefully laid out in this manner. The sound-track and
marked film are then run at the correct speed. The film, if correctly
marked, will show each important point as it passes by. Corrections,
if necessary, are easily made at this time. This film is used to make an
action layout directly in frames.
From these data a general layout sheet is compiled, each scene con-
sisting of a separate projector set-up. The action during a scene is
controlled entirely by changing the dimmers.
A Technicolor three-color camera is used to photograph the picture
projected upon the opal glass screen on the side away from the pro-
jectors, running at a speed of one frame per second. No difficulty
was experienced in providing the necessary action by dimmer changes
at this speed. Stop-motion is used at a few points where the thermal
lag of the filaments would not permit the required rapid change for
fast action at a constant camera speed of one frame per second.
Further fundamental design work on this method indicates that it
will not be necessary to project the picture upon an opal glass screen,
nor will colored lantern slides be required. The original drawing
made by the artist can be used. This drawing should be made upon
heavy water-color paper, with brilliant opaque water colors. The de-
sign is again translated into its essential components, and black-and-
white lantern slides are made. However, these slides are not colored.
The design itself is used as the object to be photographed, illuminated
through the slides in the projectors. This method would also permit
the use of colored light in the projectors.
The light-intensity should not be controlled with dimmers, but with
iris diaphragms mounted at the projectors. In this way the color-
172 R. WOLF
temperature of the lamps is not changed, which helps materially in
obtaining good color values.
Effect attachments to the projectors, such as rotating color-wheels,
flame effects, etc., are too numerous to be mentioned. By using them
skillfully, very striking and beautiful effects can be accomplished with
the abstract method of visual accompaniment. To date the abstract
method has been used only experimentally, and no commercial re-
leases of films made by this method have been made.
Admitting that there is a place for good music in motion picture
programs, it is believed that the present-day high-quality reproduc-
tion may fill a much-needed want. This is particularly true if
an artistic visual accompaniment to the music is provided upon
the screen. It is therefore expected that this new art combining
fine music faithfully reproduced and "Visual Accompaniment"
will fill a gap in the amusement field and provide for the audiences
of motion picture theaters a very worth-while supplemental form
of entertainment.
Several demonstration films illustrating two of the forms of visual accompaniment
were projected after the presentation of the paper as follows: Musical Moods — "Fin-
gal's Cave" (Mendelsohn), "Italian Caprice" (Tschaikowsky), "Barcarole" from
"Tales of Hoffman" (Offenbach); Savage Method — "Unfinished Symphony"
(Schubert), "Les Preludes" (Liszt).
THE USE OF FILMS IN THE U. S. ARMY*
M. E. GILLETTE**
Summary. — An outline of the use and production of educational motion pictures in
the United States Army, together with a discussion of their use in conjunction with the
"Applicatory Method" of instruction.
The Army's interest in motion pictures began shortly before the
World War when the Medical Corps produced and experimented with
the use of pictures on social hygiene and other medical subjects. As
is well known, the Signal Corps made hundreds of thousands of feet
of film during the World War in visually recording important events
and activities. This material, together with subsequent additions,
probably constitutes the largest and most valuable collection of his-
torical pictures in the government service. Entertainment pictures
were widely used during the War by welfare agencies within the Army.
Since the War, the Army Motion Picture Service, directed by the
Adjutant General's Department, took over this work and now oper-
ates a chain of post theaters in which feature pictures, obtained
through regular booking channels, are regularly shown. This is an
important activity contributing to the contentment and high morale
of service personnel, especially in the more isolated stations.
It is not so well known, however, that the Army was one of the
pioneers in the use of motion pictures upon a large scale for educa-
tional purposes. In addition to the Medical Corps films just men-
tioned, sixty-three reels of military training-films were produced by
the Signal Corps during the War; and many other reels, such as the
animated Elements of the Automobile, were made by commercial
agencies specifically for military uses. The production program was
in full swing at the time the armistice was signed in November, 1918,
with more than a hundred reels of pictures on military training sub-
jects in use.
The value of this material as a training adjunct was recognized;
* Presented at the Fall, 1935, Meeting at Washington, D. C.
** U. S. Army, Washington, D. C.
173
174 M. E. GILLETTE [j. s. M. P. E.
but immediately following the World War the pressure for readjust-
ment in the service stopped all new production and precluded further
extensive experimentation, although the war-time subjects continued
in circulation. No new subjects were produced until about 1928,
when a renewed interest in visual education brought about the adop-
tion of a definite program of production and the establishment of
rules governing the initiation and conduct of training-film produc-
tion projects. The Signal Corps was designated as the agency
charged with technical production matters, with the various branches
of the service collaborating in determining picture content and scope.
In 1930, the Signal Corps acquired a sound recording channel, and
through the cooperation of the motion picture industry, arranged for
training, over a period of years, a few selected officers in sound mo-
tion picture production methods. Three officers have received this
training to date, the first completing the course in June, 1931. In
1931 and 1932 a few silent films were revised and off-stage monolog
was added to make the films more effective. Since then additional
sound subjects, both natural sound and the monolog types, have
been undertaken. A total of twelve sound training-films have been
released, and seven additional subjects are now in various stages of
production.
A brief examination of the main steps in the course of a training-
film project may be of interest. The chief of a branch of service, such
as the Chief of Infantry, Chief of Cavalry, etc., decides that a training
film upon a certain subject should be produced. Application is made
to the War Department for approval of the project. Approval
granted, the Chief designates an officer, usually a specialist in the
subject to be covered, to prepare the scenario and act as technical di-
rector for the picture. The completed scenario is submitted to the
War Department and referred to the Chief Signal Officer for comments
regarding feasibility of production from a photographic and technical
standpoint and for recommendations as to its position in the produc-
tion schedule. These preliminaries completed, details are then
worked out as to the place and dates for performing the field photog-
raphy. The Army has no production stage facilities but must rely
upon suitable terrain or other background requirements available at
one or more of its numerous stations. Film processing, animation,
editorial, and similar tasks are carried on at the Signal Corps Pho-
tographic Laboratory at Washington, D. C.
The field production unit consists of the director, designated by
Feb., 1936] FILMS IN U. S. ARMY 175
the Chief Signal Officer, cameramen, recordist, and other assistants
from the Signal Corps Photographic Laboratory. The officer who
prepared the original script is usually designated to act as technical
director or advisor besides acting as liaison officer in arranging for the
use of troops, equipment, and so forth. Leading characters and
troops are supplied by the interested branch.
Upon completion of the field photography, editorial and related
work is carried on at the Signal Corps Photographic Laboratory until
the picture is ready for presentation to representatives of the inter-
ested branch and to the Plans and Training Division of the War De-
partment. Upon approval, release prints are made and distributed
to the nine Corps Area Headquarters, the three foreign departments,
the service schools, etc., so that distribution of prints for exhibition
purposes is decentralized. Several additional prints are retained at
Washington to meet additional demands. The Signal Corps makes
use of commercial equipment exclusively, and the production and
processing methods are copied, as closely as the limited funds and
personnel will permit, from similar processes or methods in general use
in the motion picture industry.
The term "educational motion pictures," is frequently used within
the Army, as elsewhere, to refer to general interest, propaganda,
travelog, and record types of pictures, as well as to instructional
films. One hears occasional references even to entertainment pic-
tures in this category. Such a meaning is regarded too broad and
vague for Army purposes. It is desirable to limit the term to pictures
produced specifically for instructional purposes, which pictures will
hereafter be referred to as training-films. The remarks that follow
are restricted to a discussion of methods of presentation and the pro-
duction technic applicable to military training-films, which, because
of their general nature, may be of interest to others interested in the
production of instructional films.
According to service manuals, the ultimate purpose of all military
training is effectiveness in war, with a view to maintaining the domes-
tic peace and international security of our people. It follows there-
fore, that training-films must contribute effectively to this objective.
Interest is therefore restricted to subjects having direct military
value, and such high specialization makes it necessary that military
personnel perform the directorial and editorial phases of the work.
The Army's training methods are based upon the applicatory sys-
tem of instruction, in which individuals or organizations under in-
176 M. E. GILLETTE [j. s. M. p. E.
struction are required to apply the principles or methods to an as-
sumed or outlined situation. There are six steps or phases of this
system :
(1) Preparation on the part of the instructor.
(2) Explanation.
(5) Demonstration or illustration.
(4) Application or practice, to acquire skill in execution.
(5) Examination or test, to determine progress or proficiency.
(6) Discussion, to correct methods of execution.
There are no "royal roads to learning" or "get-rich-quick shortcuts"
in this educational system which, in the majority of cases, requires
physical as well as mental exertion by the soldier to attain proficiency
in military subjects. Obviously, training-films can not be used as
the only means of instruction in the system but must be fitted, as a
part, into the educational method. Their role must be that of an
aid or tool in the hands of an instructor, and never that of a teaching
robot usurping all the functions of the instructor, as extreme enthusi-
asts may sometimes contend. Our training-films, designed for use
as aids in one or more of the steps listed above, can be made to shorten
the explanations or demonstration phases materially, as well as to
afford more vivid and compelling presentations than would be pos-
sible by other means.
It must be borne in mind, however, that all subjects are not equally
suitable for motion picture treatment. On the other hand, many
subjects lend themselves admirably to such purposes, and are more
effective in motion pictures than in any other form. In general, it
is regarded desirable to restrict subjects selected for motion picture
treatment to technical subjects and technic in which there is but one
set of facts or one correct method of performance. Functioning and
nomenclature of weapons and equipment fall into the first group,
while pictures showing approved methods of employing weapons, of
drilling and other exercises, fall into the second classification. Con-
troversial subjects or those susceptible of solution by more than one
applicatory method are regarded as less suitable because of the diffi-
culties of presentation and the danger of imparting the impression
that there is but one approved solution. Let us now ascertain just
where training-films can fit into the applicatory system.
(1) The first step is preparation on the part of the instructor for his
duties. Military instructors are usually selected because of their pro-
ficiency or experience in certain subjects. They have access to mili-
Feb., 1936] FILMS IN U. S. ARMY 177
tary texts, manuals, and regulations with which to refresh their
memories and otherwise prepare themselves for the class period.
These publications contain a mass of detailed information which it is
impracticable to cover thoroughly in pictures. Training-films are of
little value in preparing the peace-time instructor for his duties but
in war-time when thoroughly trained instructors are scarce, pictures
will undoubtedly become of more value in the first step.
(2) Explanation consists of a word-picture presented in the ex-
pository manner, by the instructor. Step by step he goes over the
lesson, utilizing equipment or personnel in many cases to keep the
class oriented and aid in his verbal presentation. The use of a re-
corded lecture for this purpose is physically possible but is not an
efficient means, for various reasons. When used in conjunction with
pictures or illustrations, the explanatory phase tends to become com-
bined with the demonstration phase. The off-stage voice or monolog
is a very efficient means of presenting a standardized explanation and
is readily correlated with diagrammatic or illustrative material to
make the presentation more effective. It is possible to design pic-
tures specifically for this phase but it is frequently difficult to deter-
mine whether a picture belongs in this phase or in the demonstration
phase, due to a close intermixture of the two, as will be discussed later.
(3) Demonstration, or illustration, may consist in a demonstration
by the instructor or by a selected group of highly trained persons, or
in the operation of equipment or weapons by selected personnel. In
many cases, the instructor will restate portions of his original explana-
tion as the demonstration progresses, in order to stress or drive home
the important points. Sound motion pictures are probably of great-
est value in this phase. They permit the use of a standard comment
coupled with a silent picture demonstration, the use of a complete
natural-sound demonstration, or a combination of the two as best
fits the subject at hand. Such pictures provide means for visually
demonstrating operations to large groups where lack of facilities or
the nature of the demonstration prohibits the class from seeing an
actual demonstration. Many operations are difficult to perform
without incurring danger for the personnel or consuming expensive
supplies.
As has been indicated, the question frequently arises as to whether
a certain picture should be used with the second step, explanation, or
i with the third step, demonstration. Special pictures utilizing mono-
log may be used in the explanatory step, while separate pictures using
178 M. E. GILLETTE [J. S. M. p. E.
natural sound or monolog may be used for the demonstration. A
common practice is to combine the two in the same reel or reels. One
method is to explain the lesson, step by step throughout its entire
length, and then follow with natural sound, a monolog, or a silent
picture demonstration. Another practice is to explain an individual
point with diagrams, and follow immediately with a demonstration
covering the particular point. It is usually desirable to finish off the
picture with a complete demonstration, as a whole, of all points
covered. Other variations may be used without violating the basic
principles of the applicatory system. Standardization of explana-
tion and demonstration can be attained in this manner in a minimum
number of reels.
(4) In the fourth step, imitation or application on the part of the
student, motion pictures are of no value. This step requires mental
and physical effort in most cases for the student to acquire profi-
ciency. During this phase it will often prove desirable to review
the demonstration picture several times to permit closer examination
of troublesome portions of the subject. This device brings this step
into intimate relationship with the next two steps.
(5) In the fifth step, examination, sound motion pictures will fre-
quently aid by providing a visual yardstick or standard against which
the soldier's or the unit's proficiency may be measured. Pictures de-
signed for use as aids in the third step will normally serve this purpose.
It is not believed that special pictures designed for use only in this
phase are justified.
(6) The sixth and last step is the discussion to point out correct and
incorrect methods of execution. Pictures designed for use in the third
step, demonstration, must always show the correct method of execu-
tion. Great care should be used to be sure that the students obtain
a clear visual concept of the correct method. Inclusion in the third
step of demonstrations showing incorrect methods generally tends to
confuse the pupil and befog the salient points. For these reasons a
picture designed for use in the third phase is not entirely suitable for
use as an aid in the last phase. If motion pictures are to be used
effectively in this phase, they should be specifically planned for the
purpose. Such pictures can unquestionably be made of considerable
value, but are regarded as subordinate to those designed for the third
phase. Their production is not justified so long as we have not ex-
hausted the possibilities of making demonstration and explanatory
pictures showing correct execution.
Feb., 1936] FILMS IN U. S. ARMY 179
According to the best pedagogical practice, a course of instruction
upon a subject is broken down into a series of lessons or lectures, each
of which deals with a few important points. Not more than one les-
son per day is the normal rule, and several days or weeks may be re-
quired to cover a subject completely. In the military service, where
pressure for time is frequently urgent, two periods per day per sub-
ject may be utilized. The limiting factors in this respect are the
powers of assimilation exhibited by the students in a given period of
time. The assimilation can be improved considerably by the use of
visual aids but it is unreasonable to expect that all such limitations
can be overcome so that a subject can be taught in a single showing.
It is advisable to plan training-films in parts or sections to fit the
various lessons of a course of instruction. It is also necessary to re-
align the courses of instruction to make the most efficient use of the
training-films. While it is not feasible or desirable to have separate
parts or reels for use with every separate lesson, it is desirable to fit
such pictures into the course where their use will be superior to other
methods of instruction. Several lessons may be consolidated into one
part, for use in visual and aural summarization; or each part may be
designed to demonstrate and explain some abstract or difficult point
and otherwise aid in putting across a single lesson. Properly used as
visual aids, training-films should materially reduce the number and
length of the lesson periods necessary to master a subject. The ex-
tent to which these can be reduced by the use of training-films is a
direct measure of the value of such aids.
In the Army, as elsewhere, the high costs of production and the
limited facilities for production have tempted us to cram a complete
course of instruction into one film, of, perhaps, five or six reels, de-
signed for showing in a single session. In some cases only the high
points have been covered, leaving the details for presentation by
other methods. In other instances an attempt has been made to
cover all the details; which has resulted in creating confusion in the
minds of the pupils because of the rapidity and number of points pre-
sented in a short time. This type of picture may handicap rather
than help the student. The better method is believed to be that in
which the subject is broken down into sections or parts, each of which
contains sufficient detail presented in such a manner as to enable the
student to master each step successively. The number of major
points presented in a single session should not overtax the mental
ability of the class. Moreover, the pictures should cover only the
180 M. E. GILLETTE [J. S. M. P. E.
work immediately before the student; otherwise, extraneous or ad-
vanced material would distract the thoughts and thereby tend to de-
feat the purpose of the lesson.
This brings us to another major point. Training films must be de-
signed for use in training a particular group. Obviously, pictures
planned for audiences of officers will generally be beyond the com-
prehension of average enlisted men. Conversely, those designed for
enlisted men will frequently appear dull and uninteresting to officer
classes. The technic of presentation must be varied to suit the men-
tal age or capacity of the class at which it is aimed.
While the silent picture has considerable value as an instructional
aid, depending entirely upon vision to convey its message, it is inferior
to the natural sound, the off-stage voice, or the monolog pictures,
which reach the student through both the aural and visual senses.
The use of off-stage or monolog sound — "the voice that knows all,
sees all, tells all" — is effective as a means of standardizing the explana-
tion, and in general will permit the presentation of a greater number
of points in a given length of time than is possible in a natural-sound
picture. Natural-sound pictures provide the best means of repro-
ducing a scene in all its details of sound and action. Whether natu-
ral sound or the off-stage voice is to be used depends upon the na-
ture of the sound and whether such sound or monolog can be made
to stress the desired points effectively, clearly, and directly. In
many, if not the majority, of subjects, a combination of the off-stage
voice and the natural sound will prove most effective. Monolog in
such films is effectively used to pass over unimportant details rapidly,
to link together or explain the significance of an event, or to prepare
the audience for scenes to come. It can be used also to summarize or
stress the lesson points. In this mixed type of picture care must be
exercised to keep the audience oriented as to who is speaking. A
distinctive off-stage voice coupled with suitable pauses and intona-
tions following or preceding natural-sound sequences is usually effec-
tive in this respect. In general, the interspersion of short natural-
sound and monolog sequences is objectionable, resulting in choppy
and confusing presentation. Natural-sound sequences containing
no significant dialog may be used in some cases as background for the
off-stage voice, but they must be subdued and made subordinate so
that they will not mar the intelligibility of the presentation or dis-
tract the attention of the class. Properly handled, this often proves
the most effective method of illustrating certain classes of material.
Feb., 1936] FILMS IN U. S. ARMY 181
The use of animated drawings is one of the most effective means
of illustrating certain kinds of material. Functional processes of
equipment and weapons can be demonstrated in this manner. For
example, a complete picture of what occurs in the recoil mechanism
of a big gun can be visually demonstrated by no other method. In
making our animated pictures, several different methods are used.
Articulated cut-outs, miniatures, pointers, moving arrows, and regu-
lar cut-outs as well as drawings and erasure before the camera, are
some of the devices used in addition to the familiar celluloid overlay
system. The method chosen depends upon its adaptability and
economy of execution in presenting the desired point. Miniatures,
projection backgrounds, and similar devices of the special-effects
stage could be effectively used in many cases to produce results at-
tainable in no other way or as inexpensively.
Many of the cutting tricks used successfully in producing enter-
tainment films can not be employed in instructional films. For ex-
ample, as little as possible should be left to the imagination of the
student. The presentation should be in the expository manner, so
that the observer is led step by step through the various processes.
Emotional or spectacular scenes are highly undesirable, and must be
avoided except when their use illustrates the point in question.
Many of the little tricks used with success in building a story up to a
climax may also be employed in training-films. Repetition of
sound or scene, change of viewpoint, and the tricks of going into inti-
mate details can be used effectively.
The use of humor is a questionable point because it usually serves
to divert attention. It is frequently found, however, that many
operations or actions performed in a serious manner will provoke
laughter from the audience. This is particularly true when the actor
makes some slight error or appears awkward or self-conscious in his
role. Continued repetition of a slight idiosyncrasy on the part of an
actor, or some unusual action or view of equipment in the scene also
may provoke mirth and thereby destroy the effectiveness of the pic-
ture. Unrelated picture or sound action, such as trains moving in the
background, twittering of birds, and the like may prove more dis-
tracting in the picture than if the class were actually present at the
scene of action. Great care must be exercised, therefore, to eliminate
these and any other picture or sound diversions. Theoretically this
can be accomplished by restricting the scene and sound content to the
actual instructional requirements, but hi practice this is frequently
182 M. E. GILLETTE
difficult to accomplish because the scene and camera locations must
always be practical.
All the various camera, optical printer, and sound tricks can be
called upon to assist in improving the effectiveness of the training-
film. Zoom shots from long views to close-ups and the opposite are
effective in maintaining orientation and at the same time provide op-
portunities for examining minute details. Follow-up shots can often
be used effectively to follow an individual or an operation through a
complicated situation. Slow motion can be used to examine opera-
tions normally occurring at speeds too fast for visual analysis. Stop
motion will provide opportunities for examining details at any point
of the action, and time-lapse photography can be used to speed up
processes occurring too slowly for the eye to evaluate. The micro-
scope and telephoto lenses can be used to examine minute or distant
objects, and animation can give life to abstract theories and inanimate
bodies. Cross-cutting of pictures with animated drawings, used
freely in training-films, is seldom found in combined form in the en-
tertainment field. Cameras operated by remote control can afford
intimate scenes of events in dangerous spots. Cameras placed at
strategic points provide means for reproducing an event or series of
events occurring over a large area, or at widely separated points, in a
closely integrated and correlated form. The use of split-screen tech-
nic is suggested as one means of showing two widely separated opera-
tions simultaneously. We can reach back into time through film
libraries and bring back events long past, to illustrate our lessons.
The World War files are especially valuable in this respect. Super-
imposed titles, moving arrows, travelling mats, and similar devices
of the optical printer are effective in focusing attention upon a particu-
lar part and in suppressing unimportant details. Sound amplifica-
tion makes it possible to hear sounds of low intensity and provides a
ready means for giving large classes intimate details of such things
as orders received over telephones, whispered commands, and distant
noises. All these and many more tricks of the motion picture art are
available, and should be used where applicable by the serious pro-
ducer of instructional films.
MOTION PICTURES IN THE ARMY AIR CORPS*
G. W. GODDARD**
Summary. — An outline of the extensive aerial motion picture activity now being
carried out in the departments of the Army Air Corps. The relation between the
various Air Corps units is explained, and the many uses to which motion pictures
are put in instruction and training, technical studies, maintenance and inspection of
aircraft, etc., are described.
Slow-motion pictures have proved very valuable for investigating the causes and
progress of fire in airplanes, the operation of parachutes, the effectiveness of demolition
of bombing, etc. Lectures recorded with the pictures explain the operations of blind
flying, loading bombing racks, releasing bombs, and the like. Motion pictures of vast
territories are taken quickly by planes flying en masse.
The Wright Brothers successfully completed the first heavier-than-
air flight at Kittyhawk, N. C., in 1908. Motion picture photography
has played an increasingly important part in the development of avia-
tion since that date. Largely through the medium of the screen, the
people of the world have followed its progress and have been educated
to its tremendous possibilities. Prior to the World War most of the
motion picture films of aviation developments and activities were
made by the newsreel companies, and all of these films have been
preserved as historical records for future generations. As far as
known, there was no other application of the motion picture art in
aviation until the armies engaged in the World War adopted the mo-
tion picture camera gun, which solved the problem of training mili-
tary aviators in aerial gunnery and combat without expending valu-
able ammunition and subjecting the personnel to the hazards of such
training.
The first camera gun was equipped with the standard automatic
motion picture mechanism, a film magazine which was readily re-
placed during flight, and an extremely long focal length lens to pro-
duce a large image of the target airplane upon the film. The camera
* Presented at the Fall, 1935, Meeting at Washington, D. C. This paper
expresses the author's views and are not necessarily those of the War Department.
** Department of Photography, Air Corps Technical School, Chanute Field,
Rantoul, 111.
183
184 G. W. GODDARD [J. S. M. P. E.
was equipped also with a time-recording attachment which recorded
the time upon the edge of each individual frame of the film; and thus
with celluloid film the student was allowed to view his results in the
negative. The complete unit was mounted upon a standard Lewis
machine gun. Later this was replaced with a paper film which could
be redeveloped into a positive and easily handled and viewed by the
student gunners. The complete unit was mounted upon a gun
tourelle in the gunners' cockpits of bombing and observation air-
planes. This wartime camera gun was not adapted for use in single-
seat airplanes because of the difficulty of mounting it. Several thou-
sand camera guns of this type were in use in the Army Air Service at
the close of the War, and hundreds of Air Service photographic spe-
cialists were assigned to their maintenance and to the laboratory de-
tails of film developing and finishing.
Following the introduction of the camera gun, the Army Air Corps
readily recognized the importance of producing, with the Air Service
personnel, historical, publicity, and training motion picture films ac-
curately depicting and permanently recording the rapid development
of military aeronautics in all its many departments. In furtherance
of this plan, all Army Air Service photographic sections were equipped
with Universal motion picture cameras of 200-ft. capacity and special
mounts for ground and aircraft use.
During the years following the war, the early type of gun camera
has been superseded with the development and adoption of the type
G-4 camera gun, which has greatly increased the efficiency of aerial
gunnery. With this modern camera gun, a series of pictures is taken
of the target, recording the aim of the gunner and stop-watch timing
the aim at the instant of firing. The shape and size, as well as the
weight, of the G-4 motion picture camera have been made as nearly as
possible mechanically to resemble the Browning 0.30 caliber machine
gun fitted for flexible use, so that the operator of the camera gun may
transfer easily and naturally to the machine gun and use the latter
with deadly accuracy as a result of his motion picture camera gun
training.
The principal difference between the two assemblies is the absence
of recoil when using the camera. The G-4 motion picture gun cam-
era takes pictures at the rate of approximately 16 frames per second.
Each picture represents a shot fired, and records the aim by means of
cross-lines in the optical system which coincide with the cross-wires
of the gun sight. In addition, the instant of each camera shot is re-
Feb., 1936] MOTION PICTURES IN AlR CORPS 185
corded upon each picture by synchronizing a stop-watch with the
motion picture camera gun shutter.
The G-4 camera may be used for both fixed and flexible gunnery
training purposes during offensive and defensive maneuvers. The
record of scoring hits may be studied individually or in burst groups,
by an individual or in classroom instruction, thereby providing
graphic means for correcting previous errors. Registering the stop-
watch timing of the shots makes it possible to conduct training pro-
grams, including aerial combat between two or more airplanes
equipped with motion picture camera guns, and record the time of the
first as well as the time of all vital shots fired.
In addition to providing for training the personnel of observation
and bombardment airplanes, provisions have been made for mounting
the camera in the top- wing section of single-seat airplanes for training
pursuit personnel.
The G-4 camera is actually a ruggedly constructed motion picture
camera with its components so arranged as to fit into a framework
or housing resembling that of an aircraft gun and designed to permit
installation upon a flexible gun-mount by means of a special adapter
assembly. The film used is of the standard 35-mm. motion picture
type; it is 35 feet long, has a leader of 5 feet, a sensitized film of 25
feet for exposures, and trailer of 5 feet. The film is loaded in the
camera through a door hinged to the right side of the gun camera
body assembly, and an electrical type of film indicator, for either di-
rect or remote installation, is provided to show the operator, by flash-
ing light signals, that the camera is operating, and by continuous
light, that the film has been exhausted. The leader and trailer ends
of the film are of insensitive material and allow the camera to be
loaded in the daylight. The film proper provides approximately 250
exposures, which are taken automatically as the camera trigger is re-
leased at approximately 16 exposures per second. The time-regis-
tering device optically projects a photographic image of a stop-watch
dial and full-sweep seconds hand upon the film below the main image,
and thus records the exact time at which each exposure is taken.
This type of camera is being used also by the aviation sections of the
Navy and Marine Corps.
Preceding, and coincidentally with, the development of the mo-
tion picture camera gun came the development and use of aerial mo-
tion picture cameras. Needless to say, the first motion picture cam-
eras used in aerial work were of the ordinary tripod hand-cranked
188 G. W. GODDARD [j. s. M. p. E.
military aviation, not only in the Army Air Corps but in the Naval
Aeronautics Branch and the National Advisory Committee labora-
tories at Langley Field, Hampton, Va. It is fully recognized that
the cost involved has been very small considering the results obtained.
The Army Air Corps maintains still another aerial photographic
and motion picture activity. This is the photographic School of the
Army Air Corps Technical School, located at Chanute Field, Rantoul,
111. At this school are trained the Air Corps Photographic officers and
enlisted men, and all the many skilled technicians required for taking,
developing, printing, cutting, and editing all types of aerial motion
picture films. All Army Air Corps motion pictures, other than the
engineering and technical films and films produced locally by the
photographic section, are taken and produced by the Photographic
School of the Air Corps Technical School in its complete laboratory,
which is a department of the Aerial Photographic School. This mo-
tion picture laboratory is maintained for the purpose of training offi-
cer and enlisted photographic personnel, as well as for general produc-
tion work of the Air Corps. Expert motion picture personnel from
this school is assigned to all major projects of the Air Corps, where the
films to be taken are not of direct value to the Materiel Division.
Sound camera equipment has been specially constructed for the Air
Corps for the production of Air Corps motion pictures. The weight
of such equipment has been materially reduced and the equipment it-
self is transported to the various locations in special school photo-
graphic transport airplanes. The pilot and mechanics on such mis-
sions perform the roles of director, cameraman, and sound techni-
cian. Adjacent to the Photographic School at the Air Corps Techni-
cal School is located the Communications School, which cooperates
with the Photographic School in furnishing the required radio techni-
cians, as needed, for the operation and maintenance of the sound re-
cording equipment. In January, 1934, complete sound camera
equipment was flown to Rockwell Field, Calif., and Air Corps flying
personnel completed a four-reel sound motion picture covering the
Army Air Corps School of Aviation activities. Approximately 70
per cent of this film was completed in the air, showing the duties of
the personnel engaged in fog flying, commonly known as "blind"
flying, and the latest methods of aerial navigation. The film was
completed for the historical record of the Army Air Corps, and has
since proved to be very valuable for instructional purposes in Air
Corps schools, National Guard, and Air Corps Reserve Units. Last
Feb., 1936] MOTION PICTURES IN AlR CORPS 189
spring this film served a very useful purpose in connection with the
aerial training of West Point cadets as recommended in the findings
of the Baker Board, appointed by President Roosevelt. Included in
the present schedule of motion picture work is the project of the Photo-
graphic Department of the Air Corps Technical School to assemble
and edit the 4000-ft. sound-film entitled Wings for West Point. This
film was photographed last June at Mitchel Field, Long Island, and
shows the extent of aerial military training given to the second-class
men at West Point. This historic film follows the student through all
his training, from his arrival at Mitchel Field to his departure there-
from. Approximately 70 per cent of the film was taken in the air,
showing the cadets carrying out the various navigation and aerial
gunnery missions. The ground sequences of the film show in detail
the cadets inspecting the various types of tactical airplanes and
equipment, and also the routine ground training during the training
period. The scenario for the film was prepared by photographic per-
sonnel at the Army Air Corps Technical School and the dialog was
written by an Air Corps officer on the Commanding Officer's staff at
Mitchel Field, who was thoroughly familiar with West Point training
details. The modern air-conditioned photographic laboratory facili-
ties of the Eighth and Fourteenth photographic sections at Mitchel
Field were made available for the photographers so that immediately
after each scene was photographed test developments could be ac-
complished. The assembly details of the West Point film are being
accomplished in connection with the routine training of student
photographers, as well as are those features pertaining to chemical
mixing, developing, printing, editing, drying operations, and projec-
tion. In addition to this work, the present photographic school
schedule includes the preparation of a bombing film for instructional
purposes at the Air Corps Tactical School, Montgomery, Ala. Ap-
proximately 90 per cent of the film will include Air Corps bombing
scenes now in the files of the Engineering Division and the Film
Library, Office, Chief of Air Corps. The necessary new sequences
will be completed by expert trained aerial cinematographers at the
various Air Corps photographic sections assigned to tactical units
concerned. It is expected that approximately 95 per cent of the film
will consist of air scenes depicting all types and conditions of aerial
bombardment, and will prove of great training value to the Tactical
School and to tactical line units, the National Guard, and the Re-
serve Corps. One of the features of the picture will be the Engineer-
188 G. W. GODDARD [j. s. M. P. E.
military aviation, not only in the Army Air Corps but in the Naval
Aeronautics Branch and the National Advisory Committee labora-
tories at Langley Field, Hampton, Va. It is fully recognized that
the cost involved has been very small considering the results obtained.
The Army Air Corps maintains still another aerial photographic
and motion picture activity. This is the photographic School of the
Army Air Corps Technical School, located at Chanute Field, Rantoul,
111. At this school are trained the Air Corps Photographic officers and
enlisted men, and all the many skilled technicians required for taking,
developing, printing, cutting, and editing all types of aerial motion
picture films. All Army Air Corps motion pictures, other than the
engineering and technical films and films produced locally by the
photographic section, are taken and produced by the Photographic
School of the Air Corps Technical School in its complete laboratory,
which is a department of the Aerial Photographic School. This mo-
tion picture laboratory is maintained for the purpose of training offi-
cer and enlisted photographic personnel, as well as for general produc-
tion work of the Air Corps. Expert motion picture personnel from
this school is assigned to all major projects of the Air Corps, where the
films to be taken are not of direct value to the Materiel Division.
Sound camera equipment has been specially constructed for the Air
Corps for the production of Air Corps motion pictures. The weight
of such equipment has been materially reduced and the equipment it-
self is transported to the various locations in special school photo-
graphic transport airplanes. The pilot and mechanics on such mis-
sions perform the roles of director, cameraman, and sound techni-
cian. Adjacent to the Photographic School at the Air Corps Techni-
cal School is located the Communications School, which cooperates
with the Photographic School in furnishing the required radio techni-
cians, as needed, for the operation and maintenance of the sound re-
cording equipment. In January, 1934, complete sound camera
equipment was flown to Rockwell Field, Calif., and Air Corps flying
personnel completed a four-reel sound motion picture covering the
Army Air Corps School of Aviation activities. Approximately 70
per cent of this film was completed in the air, showing the duties of
the personnel engaged in fog flying, commonly known as "blind"
flying, and the latest methods of aerial navigation. The film was
completed for the historical record of the Army Air Corps, and has
since proved to be very valuable for instructional purposes in Air
Corps schools, National Guard, and Air Corps Reserve Units. Last
Feb., 1936] MOTION PICTURES IN AlR CORPS 189
spring this film served a very useful purpose in connection with the
aerial training of West Point cadets as recommended in the findings
of the Baker Board, appointed by President Roosevelt. Included in
the present schedule of motion picture work is the project of the Photo-
graphic Department of the Air Corps Technical School to assemble
and edit the 4000-ft. sound-film entitled Wings for West Point. This
film was photographed last June at Mitchel Field, Long Island, and
shows the extent of aerial military training given to the second-class
men at West Point. This historic film follows the student through all
his training, from his arrival at Mitchel Field to his departure there-
from. Approximately 70 per cent of the film was taken in the air,
showing the cadets carrying out the various navigation and aerial
gunnery missions. The ground sequences of the film show in detail
the cadets inspecting the various types of tactical airplanes and
equipment, and also the routine ground training during the training
period. The scenario for the film was prepared by photographic per-
sonnel at the Army Air Corps Technical School and the dialog was
written by an Air Corps officer on the Commanding Officer's staff at
Mitchel Field, who was thoroughly familiar with West Point training
details. The modern air-conditioned photographic laboratory facili-
ties of the Eighth and Fourteenth photographic sections at Mitchel
Field were made available for the photographers so that immediately
after each scene was photographed test developments could be ac-
complished. The assembly details of the West Point film are being
accomplished in connection with the routine training of student
photographers, as well as are those features pertaining to chemical
mixing, developing, printing, editing, drying operations, and projec-
tion. In addition to this work, the present photographic school
schedule includes the preparation of a bombing film for instructional
purposes at the Air Corps Tactical School, Montgomery, Ala. Ap-
proximately 90 per cent of the film will include Air Corps bombing
scenes now in the files of the Engineering Division and the Film
Library, Office, Chief of Air Corps. The necessary new sequences
will be completed by expert trained aerial cinematographers at the
various Air Corps photographic sections assigned to tactical units
concerned. It is expected that approximately 95 per cent of the film
will consist of air scenes depicting all types and conditions of aerial
bombardment, and will prove of great training value to the Tactical
School and to tactical line units, the National Guard, and the Re-
serve Corps. One of the features of the picture will be the Engineer-
190 G. W. GODDARD [J. S. M. P. E.
ing Division technical film made for research purposes during the
bombing of the Pee Dee River concrete bridge in North Carolina,
showing the effectiveness of aerial demolition bombs upon steel rein-
forced concrete construction.
Occasionally, specialized personnel, and with airplanes of the mod-
ern service type, are ordered to the Air Corps Technical School from
the tactical units and other service schools to give lectures and demon-
strations to the school departments. By order of the Commanding
Officer, all lectures and demonstrations of this nature will be recorded
and photographed by the Photographic Department and made avail-
able for future instruction. Recently a new type of attack plane was
flown to Chanute Field and a motion picture film was made showing
all the details of a lecture given on it, including the loading of ordinary
bombs and parachute bombs upon the latest type of bomb racks.
The films showed also the method of release, and the actual release,
of the bombs during flight. The complete lectures, which were given
by an Ordnance Officer from Shreveport, La., were taken in shorthand
and are available for completion of the sound details of the film, which
it is expected will be incorporated in the bombing film being made for
the Tactical School. These examples are only a few of the many
that demonstrate the practicability and the need of maintaining a
modern motion picture laboratory at the Army Air Corps Technical
School.
Other films completed to date by the Army Air Corps Technical
School include the film made on the flight to and from Alaska and
during the operations at Fairbanks, when Army Air Corps photo-
graphic planes demonstrated the practicability of mass photographic
flying and photographed 35,000 square miles in seven hours and
forty-five minutes of actual time of photographing. Aerial motion
picture personnel of the school also accompanied the Army Air Corps
Cold Weather Test Flight along the Northern border in 1934 and
photographed the operations of the flight. These films have been
turned over to the Engineering Division and have assisted that ac-
tivity in the further development of arctic weather flying equipment.
Civilian instructors, under the supervision of the Director of the
Department of Mechanics, which department conducts the training
of all Air Corps mechanics, are now preparing a dialog for a local
training film covering the standard procedure of maintaining and in-
specting Army aircraft. The work is being accomplished along with
the routine work of the school, and the photographing will be done
Feb., 1936] MOTION PICTURES IN AlR CORPS 191
by the Department of Photography during regular instruction of the
classes.
As previously stated, there are fourteen photographic sections of the
Army Air Corps. These are located in the nine Corps Areas in the
United States and in three foreign possessions. The purpose is to
complete in the most economical manner all photographic training
missions and miscellaneous aerial surveys for the respective Corps
Area headquarters. Each aerial photographic section is composed
of twenty enlisted photographers and technicians under the command
of a photographic flying officer. Most of these photo section labora-
tories are quite modern and include air-conditioning, temperature-
control, and dustproof equipment. They have been constructed
within the past two or three years in connection with the general
building program of new Air Corps stations. Each laboratory is
equipped with motion picture developing equipment and cameras
adaptable for use in all service type airplanes and upon the ground.
The operators of the equipment are thoroughly experienced in both
the operation of the camera and the use of the laboratory equipment.
These technicians are thoroughly familiar with local atmospheric
conditions as they affect aerial and ground cinematography. The
present arrangement of locating cinematographers in all the Air Corps
photographic sections is regarded as very efficient in that all special
happenings in that vicinity are immediately photographed and the
developed films rushed to the Chief of the Air Corps for distribution
to the newsreels and for the permanent library of the Chief of
Air Corps. In order to keep the personnel in proper training, each
section is required periodically to test its equipment in the air and to
mail the films to Washington, where they are closely inspected. A
fresh stock of film is carried in the supply depots of the Air Corps and
is available to the sections upon requisition. Most of the film is fur-
nished in 200-ft. lengths for use in the standard aerial motion picture
cameras, which are equipped with 200-ft. magazines.
Panchromatic No. 2 is the type of motion picture negative film
generally used for aerial motion picture photography in the Army
Air Corps. For years it has been found that Panchromatic No. 2
produced best results when used with the standard Air Corps filters
employed in making still aerial photographs. Although this film is
comparatively slow-speed, it is sufficiently fast to permit the use of
the K-3, minus blue, and A-25 filters. On clear days, between the
hours of 8 A.M. and 4 P.M., when filters of the minus blue and A-2o
192 G. W. GODDARD [j. S. M. P. E.
types are used, the lens opening is set at //4.5, infinity focus, 180-
degree shutter opening, and the photographing done at 32 frames per
second. The type of filter and the lens opening vary, depending upon
the atmospheric conditions in certain sections of the country. When
using Panchromatic No. 2 for low-altitude pictures taken over cities
or along the coast line where there is a marked degree of contrast,
filters of the Aero One type are generally used, and the stop is reduced
to //8, at 32 frames per second. When producing aerial motion pic-
tures of this type the primary interest lies in detail rather than in pic-
torial effect; hence the need for the finest possible grain. Our expe-
rience has been that this is obtained to the best advantage in Pan-
chromatic No. 2 film. The use of supersensitive motion picture film
is resorted to only for early morning or late evening missions, or un-
der bad weather conditions, when the light is extremely poor.
A most difficult problem is presented in photographing Army Air
Corps formations or single airplanes, in that the present colors of the
airplane cover the two extremes of contrast, the wings being painted
bright yellow with an enamel finish, giving a high reflection factor, and
the fuselage being painted a dark green, usually without an enamel
surface, and having a low reflection factor. In this case it is necessary
to photograph the formation or single airplane, and sacrifice the re-
sults in the distant landscape. The Army Air Corps recently issued
an order to all repair depots to change the green color of the fuselage
to a light blue. This will be very helpful in photographing airplane
formations in the future. Another difficulty encountered in photo-
graphing the latest types of airplanes has been occasioned by the in-
creased speeds of the new types of military aircraft, compared with
the speed of the present type photographic airplanes. In photo-
graphing single airplanes or formations in flight, it is very necessary
that the photographic airplane be- able to outdistance the airplane
being photographed in order to move into position for satisfactory
pictorial composition. In recent months it has been necessary to ar-
range camera installations in non-photographic airplanes in order to
correct this condition. It has been extremely difficult to make satis-
factory camera installations, as it generally happens that the desir-
able positions are occupied by other pieces of necessary equipment.
When the 200-miles-per-hour Martin bombers were flown over
Alaska it was necessary to install the motion picture camera equip-
ment in the front cockpit of a bomber and cut a hole through the cellu-
loid turret cowling protecting the forward gunner. A set-up of this
Feb., 1936] MOTION PICTURES IN AlR CORPS
kind was used exclusively for motion picture work on the Alaskan
flight. The oval celluloid enclosure with the camera mounting at-
tached provided full swing of the camera and mount to any desired
position. The location of the camera in the nose of the airplane in
this instance proved very desirable in that it was away from the mo-
tors and kept free from oil, which generally accumulates upon the lens
when the camera is mounted at the rear of the motors. The camera
operator on the Alaskan flight was provided with a radiophone so
that it was possible for him to talk to the pilots of the planes being
photographed and give them necessary instructions as to the desired
formation.
Considerable difficulty is experienced in the operation of cameras
in cold weather, particularly on planes flying at high altitudes where
the camera is exposed to the wind blast. Constant attention to the
proper lubrication of the moving parts is necessary. Moreover, as
previously indicated, the operator must be constantly on the alert to
prevent oil from covering the lenses, particularly in single-motored
airplanes, in which the camera is mounted directly behind the radial
motors which throw off a fine spray of oil from the cylinder heads and
accessories.
In connection with the maintenance and repair of aerial cameras
and other equipment, including laboratory equipment, most of this
is attended to in the units and activities concerned. However, major
repairs are completed either at the factory producing the equipment
or at the Materiel Division. Army Air Corps motion picture cam-
eras in most cases are operated electrically from the 12-volt airplane
power supply.
Aside from the historical, publicity, and training sound motion
pictures required by the Air Corps, it is believed that motion picture
photography will play a very important part in future military ob-
servation operations. The speed of the military airplane now being
developed will be much too high to permit the observer or pilot to
make pin-point still photographs with the required degree of accuracy
or for the personnel to carry out visual observation where it is neces-
sary to spend much time in making a detailed study. This will be
especially true if missions are required at low altitude under the
clouds in countries similar to Alaska and Siberia, where cloudy
weather prevails most of the time.
It is believed that specially designed high-speed, 70-mm. motion
picture cameras for observation will solve this problem, in that it will
194 G. W. GODDARD
be possible to install a high-speed motion picture camera in the wing
or fuselage of an airplane, and operate it over the area to be photo
graphed. Then after the film is printed it can be projected upon a
screen for detailed study by the staff. In case it is necessary to com
plete a detailed study of a line of trenches, railroad yards, docks, 01
munition depots, it would be quite feasible for the pilot to pass ovei
these areas at 300 mph., press a button upon the control stick, anc
photograph the entire area in slow motion. After the film is de
veloped and printed, which could be accomplished within one hour
the film taken from a plane travelling at 300 miles per hour could be
projected upon the screen at the normal projection speed, and afforc
the staff an opportunity to study the area as though they were drifting
over the area at a speed of ten miles per hour. Making the observa
tion pictures in this manner, upon 70-mm. film, twice the width o]
the standard film, would offer another advantage, in that it would be
practicable to cut one or more frames from the film and study their
singly or in pairs if a stereoscopic study is desired. With the presenl
knowledge of fine-grain developers, it is believed films made in thii
manner will afford a maximum of detail. The development of thi;
equipment for air use would not present a very difficult problem
Heavy color filters would not be necessary for this type of aerial
photography, so that using supersensitive film and a high-speed lens
the combination should work out quite satisfactorily. Another ad
vantage is that this equipment could be operated by remote contro
in single-seat planes and thereby afford a minimal target.
Further, this same principle in the form of very large cameras
covering many square miles of territory, could be utilized upon largei
airplanes at great altitudes. Recent aeronautical development*
have conclusively shown that such planes may be given as high £
speed as any other type. Once in the air at great altitudes these
planes could be successfully attacked only from the air, making then
invulnerable except to planes carrying the same weight of fire.
What has been said above is a somewhat sketchy outline of the
vast amount of aerial motion picture activity now being carried oul
in the various departments of the Army Air Corps. By far, the ma
jority of this work has and will continue to involve technical anc
tactical knowledge and experience exclusive to the Air Corps, and
this work must, therefore, in the interests of efficiency and economy .
continue unobstructed from any source in the hands of the agency
most able to perform it.
NOTE ON THE MEASUREMENT OF PHOTOGRAPHIC
DENSITIES WITH A BARRIER TYPE OF PHOTOCELL*
B. C. HIATT AND C. TUTTLE**
Summary. — In discussing the use of a photocell for the measurement of diffuse
density, the importance of the optical characteristics of the cell as a part of the optical
system of the densitometer is emphasized. Data showing some of the discrepancies in
density measurement resulting from these optical characteristics are given. It is
shown that for two extreme types of emulsion, the measurement of diffuse density is
possible with certain arrangements of the optical system.
The barrier type of photocell has been used successfully in many
instances as a convenient means for measuring illumination and
brightness. Several characteristics of this device, which make it
suitable for photometry, appear to make it equally suitable for densi-
tometry. Simplicity, inherent stability, and spectral response char-
acteristics are the leading factors which favor its use for the measure-
ment of photographic density. While visual densitometry will no
doubt remain as the standard for a long time to come, the advan-
tages of physical densitometry are so apparent that the substitution
of the photocell for the human eye is certain to become popular, if the
photoelectric results can be relied upon to a reasonable degree of
accuracy.
It is the purpose of this paper to discuss the influence of the optical
characteristics of this type of cell when used for the measurement of
photographic density. This discussion is of interest regardless of the
method used to convert the cell output to density values. It is of
equal importance whether the cell is used as a direct-reading device
with its output calibrated in terms of density, or whether it is em-
ployed in a null-method instrument in conjunction with a calibrated
wedge or other intensity-controlling device.
The reliability of any densitometer depends, in the final analysis,
upon the means of translating light flux to numerical density values.
* Presented at the Fall, 1935, Meeting at Washington, D. C. Communica-
tion No. 567 from the Kodak Research Laboratories.
** Eastman Kodak Co., Rochester, N. Y.
195
196
B. C. HlATT AND C. TUTTLE
[J. S. M. P. E.
For the visual densitometer, the human eye and brain match field
brightnesses using the setting of a standard wedge or polarizing prism
to evaluate the unknown density. For the physical densitometer, it
is the current output of a photocell which, properly interpreted, will
give a value to the unknown density. The essential difference be-
tween these two instruments is that, in the first case, the measuring
element, the eye, is not connected with the optical system in a man-
ner which will influence the illumination which it is measuring ; while
in the second, the cell is a very definite part of the optical system with
* E E B C J)
FIG. 1. Optical system of elementary visual
densitometer.
/f E £ B C J)
FIG. 2. Optical system of elementary physi-
cal densitometer.
a definite influence upon the results obtained. An analysis of two ele-
mentary optical systems for the measurement of diffuse density will
perhaps emphasize this difference more distinctly.
Fig. 1 illustrates the essential parts of a visual densitometer. It
consists of a light-source, A, diffusing material, B, film, C, the photom-
eter cube, D, and the eye. A means of introducing a comparison
brightness into the field is shown, although it is not important in this
analysis. The apertures, E, are merely to limit this field. Light from
the lamp strikes the diffusing material. Some is reflected, some
scattered, and some transmitted to the film. Here again some is
Feb., 1936] MEASUREMENT OF DENSITIES 197
reflected, some absorbed, in proportion to the opacity of the film; and
the remainder, passing through the cube, reaches the eye. Some of
the light reflected by the film is re-reflected by the diffuser. This
added component has very little effect upon high densities, but it
causes the low densities to appear somewhat lower than they actually
are.
The optical system of an elementary physical densitometer, shown
in Fig. 2, is essentially the same as that of the visual densitometer,
except that the photocell is substituted for the eye and cube. The be-
havior of the light is similar to that of the former system, until it
passes the film. Here, however, the difference between the cell and
the eye as part of the optical system becomes evident, and the optical
characteristics of the cell have a decided influence upon the results.
The most striking characteristic of the cell to be considered is re-
flection. Much of the light passing through the film is reflected by
the cell surface, and again passes through the film to be re-reflected by
the diffuser. The result is that low densities appear to be higher than
they actually are. For example, assume that the surfaces of the cell
and the diffuser each reflect 50 per cent of the incident light. If the
light that passes through the diffuser is regarded as 100 per cent, then
the cell, with no density in place, will be affected by this 100 per cent,
plus the components of first, second, and subsequent reflections,
amounting to nearly 35 per cent. Now, if a density with transmission
of 80 per cent is placed over the cell, the light reaching the cell will be
80 per cent plus about 15 per cent resulting from reflected compo-
nents that have twice passed through the film. Thus, it happens that
the apparent density of the film will be approximately 0.15 and not
0.10.
Another cell characteristic that has an important effect upon the
results is the variation of the cell response with the angle of incidence
of the light. This characteristic influences the integration of light
received upon the cell surface from light- scattering materials. A typi-
cal curve of cell output vs. angle of incidence is shown in Fig. 3.
A third characteristic, that of spectral response, may be important
in that the cell does not exactly match the eye in this respect, and
that there is a difference between individual cells of the same or differ-
ent make. However, this characteristic has little or no significance if
the materials to be measured are as spectrally nonselective as the
silver image of a photographic film.
A fourth characteristic is better called an imperfection. It has been
198
B. C. HlATT AND C. TUTTLE
[J. S. M. P. E.
noted with certain cells that the output is not proportional to the
product of intensity times illuminated area. Cells exhibiting this
fault have, perhaps, been mistreated during use, or contain some flaw
in the surface. It is possible to select a cell that does not show this
fault, but since it does exist and may have considerable effect upon
results, it has been included in this list.
A fifth characteristic may be called fatigue effect. When cells are
subjected to high intensities, there is, at first, a rapid falling off of
•0
• 0
TO
•O
• 0
»0
30
•*o
IO
0
^
^
\
\
H
\
\
1
i}
\
"u •
0
\
\
^
t
INQLC.
C
Of INC
9E.&RC.I
OK.NCC
^»)
FIG. 3. Output of cell as function of angle of
incidence of light.
galvanometer response, gradually lessening, and finally reaching a
minimum. The recovery time is much slower, so that if the cell is
first allowed to reach a steady state, it will remain reasonably constant
while in use.
Combinations of two or more of these characteristics in various de-
grees may cause idiosyncrasies in a photoelectric densitometer. For
this reason, it is of interest to show how the measured value of a
photographic density varies as the optical characteristics of such a
densitometer are changed.
There are two ways in which a physical densitometer may be cali-
Feb., 1936] MEASUREMENT OF DENSITIES 199
brated. The first method is applicable to either a null-method instru-
ment or one of the type described above. The instrument may be
calibrated with samples of film which have been measured with a
visual densitometer. The wedge setting or meter deflection may be
marked to correspond to the density value of the film sample. The
second, based upon the fundamental definition of density, consists in
measuring the illumination of the system with and without the film in
place, and computing the apparent density from the formula :
D = loglo jt
It does not necessarily follow that an instrument calibrated by the
first method will give the same value to an unknown density as will an
instrument calibrated by the second. Nor is theie any assurance that
either instrument will read correctly a density of an unknown emul-
sion. Differences in the optical characteristics of the eye and cell, of
the optical systems used, and of the various types of emulsions are
factors which may lead to erroneous results. However, it may be
possible to adjust these factors so that the instrument will give results
for all types of emulsions which will correspond to the standard
values of a visual densitometer. Such was the aim of this experiment.
The first step was to construct a simple densitometer, similar to
that shown in Fig. 2, with the addition of a lens to utilize the light
more efficiently and a diaphragm to control the maximum cell output.
A commercial Weston photronic cell was chosen, and was cali-
brated with the galvanometer to be used to determine the relation
between light-intensity upon the cell and galvanometer response.
This relation was used in the calculation of film transmission and ap-
parent density value. Two types of emulsion were chosen, fine-
grained and coarse-grained. The density values were measured with
a Jones densitometer1 to obtain the standard diffuse densities.
Specifically, the aim of this experiment was to devise an optical sys-
tem in which the density values for both fine-grain and coarse-grain
film would correspond to diffuse values obtained with the Jones den-
sitometer. The results are shown, therefore, in such a way that the
differences between diffuse and observed density values will be most
clearly indicated, and the effects of changes in the optical system most
easily recognized.
The first group of results is shown in Fig. 4. Here, the film is sand-
wiched between the glass window of the cell and a mask, diffusing
200
B. C. HlATT AND C. TUTTLE
[J. S. M. P. E.
material being used or not as indicated. There are three facts to be
noted about these results: First, diffuse density values are not ob-
tained; second, the two materials do not show the same discrepancies ;
and third, the results where no diffusion is used correspond more
closely to the standard density values, while those with diffusion are
considerably higher. The discrepancies are evidently caused pri;
marily by interreflection between cell surface and diffusing material.
In an effort to get rid of the effects of interreflection between film
and opal glass, the cell was removed to a distance from the film and
NO DIFFUSION
FL-/VSM OPAL, POLISHED
POT OPAL., riME. GROUND
o.t 0.4. o.fr o.a i.o i.T. 1.4. !.«. i.e %.o o.x 0.4. o.c» o.a i.o i.a i A i c. i.e to
FIG. 4. Diffuse density (Dd) vs. ratio of apparent to diffuse density (Da/Dd)
for optical system No. 1.
diffusing material. With this arrangement, the cell would measure
the brightness of the film, and yet be so placed that its reflection char-
acteristics would have little or no effect upon the results. The curves
of Fig. 5 show that, for the fine-grain film, diffuse density values were
achieved using either flash or pot opal. This was true also for the
coarse-grain film, but for a limited range only. With no diffusion, the
curves are considerably higher than in the former case. Also, the effi-
ciency of this system was very low. The maximum cell output with
diffusion in the light path was less than 1 per cent of that with no
diffusion. This is an important factor for two reasons: First, efficient
use of light with high cell output allows the use of a more rugged type
of electrical meter; and, second, the wattage of the lamp should be
kept within reasonable limits to prevent burning the film. It, there-
Feb., 1936]
MEASUREMENT OF DENSITIES
201
fore, seemed advisable to attempt to measure diffuse density with no
diffusing material in the system.
In photographic printing, diffuse density will result if the exposure
is made with diffuse light ; or, as in the case of contact printing, if the
positive receives all the light passing through the negative, whether
the incident light be specular or diffuse. In a visual densitometer, the
eye has no power to integrate light over an angle. Therefore, to read
diffuse density, some diffusing material must be used. In a physical
densitometer, however, the photocell may be able to integrate light,
NO DIFFUSION
FLASH OPAL, POLISHE.P
POT OPAL, flNt &ROUND
LAMP
.
LE.N&-.
PIAPHRAGM
A. COARSE-GRAIN
Mill
FIG. 5. Diffuse density (Dd) vs. ratio of apparent to diffuse density (Da/Dd)
for optical system No. 2.
in a manner similar to the positive material in contact printing, and,
therefore, measure diffuse density with no diffusing material in the
system.
In Fig. 4, the cell was placed so that it received nearly all the light
passing through the film, with the result that diffuse values were
actually achieved in some cases, and very nearly so in others. By
substituting a thin glass window for the relatively thick one originally
protecting the cell, results were obtained as shown in Fig. 6. For fine-
grain film, the density values are diffuse over the entire range. Some
difference in the characteristics of the two types of film caused the low
densities of the coarse-grain film to appear lower than the diffuse
value. Coarse-grain film is known to scatter light more than fine-
202
B. C. HlATT AND C. TUTTLE
[J. S. M. P. E.
grain film at low densities.2 That this is not the cause for the present
discrepancy can be deduced from the fact that the curves for flash
and pot opal are very nearly parallel to that for no diffusion and show
the same droop in the curve at low densities.
After measurement of the reflection characteristics of the film and
photocell, it was concluded that a difference in the specular reflection
NO DIFFUSION
FLASH OPAL., ROLISME.P
POT OPAL , FINE. GR.OUND
OPAU <*LASS
COAR»EL-<iRAIN FILM
I I I I I I I
0 Ot 0.4- 0<b O.8 I.O I.X I .A l.« 18 -Z, 0 OX O.A 06, 0.6 1.0 1.1 1.4- I.* 1.6
FIG. 6. Diffuse density (Dd) vs. ratio of apparent to diffuse density (Da/Dd)
for optical system No. 3.
coefficient of fine-grain and coarse-grain film at low densities was re-
sponsible for the discrepancy. Accordingly, the glass window was
removed entirely, with results shown in Fig. 7. The system measures
diffuse density for both fine-grain and coarse-grain film over the range
of densities used. However, it is not a system that could be used in
practice, since with no window, the delicate cell surface would be ex-
posed to injury. The only advantage of removing this window was
the elimination of specular reflection from the glass surface. It was
found that this same advantage would result if the glass surface were
dulled by grinding. A thin window with a finely ground surface was
placed over the cell surface. The results differed in no way from
those shown in Fig. 7.
The above discussion has illustrated some of the problems encount-
ered in the measurement of photographic density with a photocell.
It shows that the characteristics, and even the positions, of the com-
ponent parts of the optical system have an important influence upon
Feb., 1936]
MEASUREMENT OF DENSITIES
203
the results obtainable. While not a conclusive proof, it demonstrates
that in one case at least, diffuse density, as defined by a visual densi-
tometer, can be measured for two extreme types of emulsion. Finally,
it emphasizes that the photocell is in every respect a part of the opti-
cal system of a physical densitometer, and must be so treated in the
design of such an instrument.
PIAPHMA**!
LtN3
O.fr
Da
'•*
p
5^4.
0 1
A
sCC
)AR
sc.-
C.R.A
IN
riL
M
B
T- F-
NEL-
G,R>
MN
FIL
M
o.
X 0
•* 0
e> O
6 1
O 1.
X 0
4- 0
(• O
e i
0 1
1 1
4. |
ft 1
e %.
FIG. 7. Diffuse density (Z)<0 w. ratio of apparent to diffuse density (Da/Dd)
for optical system No. 4.
REFERENCES
1 JONES, L. A.: "An Instrument (Densitometer) for the Measurement of High
Photographic Densities," /. Opt. Soc. Amer., 7 (March, 1923), No. 3, p. 231.
2 TUTTLE, C.: "The Relation between Diffuse and Specular Density," /.
Opt. Soc. Amer., 12 (June, 1926), No. 6, p. 559; republished, /. Soc. Mot. Pict.
Eng., XX (March, 1933), No. 3, p. 228.
DISCUSSION
MR. WHITE : The limitations that have been pointed out in this paper are real
limitations, and I want to point out that we found this densitometer of value only
after calibrating the wedge. When we use a photometric density calibration of
the wedge, the final measured densities of a test-strip do not agree with usually
measured densities because of the limitations mentioned.
The only feature we found that made it of value was that, with commercial
films, the range of graininess was not great enough to cause trouble. We found
one calibration that would work to the necessary precision on the various films
of commercial graininess.
MOTION PICTURE FILM PROCESSING LABORATORIES IN
GREAT BRITAIN*
I. D. WRATTEN**
Summary. — Current practices and equipment in use in the motion picture process-
ing laboratories of Great Britain are described under the headings: Picture Negative
Development, Positive Development, Development of Sound- Track Negative, Develop-
ing Equipment, and Printing.
The developing and printing of motion picture film in Great Britain
is done in about thirteen laboratories, only five of which, however, are
equipped for developing picture negative film. All are situated in
or near London.
There has been a notable increase in the number of British produc-
tions during recent years, but the majority of the work done by
most of the laboratories lies in printing American productions for re-
lease in England. It is the purpose of this paper to describe some
of the methods and equipment used in the laboratories in this country.
The smaller laboratories still use a visual method of controlling
positive film development, which is, of course, dependent upon per-
sonal judgment. The larger laboratories, however, are now using
sensitometric means for the control of development, similar to those
used in Hollywood.1 For this purpose the Eastman Type lib
sensitometer,2 a time-scale instrument designed especially to meet
the needs of the motion picture laboratory, is recognized in England
as the standard motion picture sensitometer. At the present time
four laboratories have installed and are using such instruments.
Both the Eastman3 and the Martens head polarization densitometers
are widely used. A photocell densitometer complete with automatic
curve plotter built by W. Watson & Sons, Ltd., London, has been
installed at one laboratory and has given excellent results over a
six months' trial period.
Picture Negative Development. — The practice followed in the larger
* Presented at the Spring, 1935, Meeting at Hollywood, Calif.
** Kodak Ltd., London, England.
204
GREAT BRITAIN PROCESSING LABORATORIES
205
laboratories is to control the action of the developer by varying
either the replenishing rate or the machine speed, according to the
results attained by developing, at frequent intervals, negative film
strips exposed to the negative setting of the type lib sensitometer.
The picture negative itself is developed by the test-method. In
using this system a test piece from each roll of picture negative is
developed to the normal gamma value, which in most laboratories
appears to be in the neighborhood of 0.65, and the man in charge
of negative development then determines by personal judgment the
development time required by the particular roll from which the
test piece was taken. One laboratory, however, attached to one
of the largest studios, develops all studio picture negatives to a
standard gamma of 0.65.
The formula used for picture negative development is in all labora-
tories a borax developer of the Eastman D-76 type, with slight modi-
FIG. 1. Sensitometric control record for positive film.
fications to suit the varying conditions found in different types of
continuous developing machines.
Positive Development. — In the smaller laboratories the develop-
ment of positive prints is still controlled by the personal judgment of
the man in charge of the department. By varying the time of de-
velopment within certain limits, the machine operator attempts to
compensate for developer exhaustion and also for small errors in
printer timing. The larger laboratories, however, control positive
development by sensitometric means, the practice being to maintain
a predetermined gamma by altering the machine speed or the re-
plenisher flow according to the indications obtained from sensito-
206
I. D. WRATTEN
[J. S. M. P. E.
metric exposures on strips of positive film which are run through the
machine at hourly or half -hourly intervals. The gamma to which
prints are developed varies somewhat from laboratory to laboratory,
but it is safe to say that the lowest value adhered to by any laboratory
in England is about 2.10, and the highest, 2.40. A positive control
sheet from one of the laboratories is shown in Fig. 1. This shows
quite clearly that over a period of sixteen hours, during which the
FJG. 2. Vinten developing machine.
machine processed about 170,000 feet of film, the maximum varia-
tion of gamma was from 2.28 to 2.40, and the variation in time of
development necessary to maintain the gamma within these limits
was from 3l/z to 3l/4 minutes.
. The developing formulas vary considerably, but nearly all can be
said to be modifications of the well known Eastman D-16 formula,
although in most cases the citric acid contained in that formula is
omitted.
Feb., 1936] GREAT BRITAIN PROCESSING LABORATORIES 207
Development of Sound-Track Negative. — It is unnecessary to de-
scribe the development of the sound-tracks, since the methods used
are similar to those already described for picture negative and posi-
tive film. It is usual for the laboratory to adhere to the specifica-
tions given either by the studio or by the manufacturers of the par-
ticular sound system.
Developing Equipment. — Since the equipment used for develop-
ing motion picture film in England varies considerably in design, it
is thought advisable to give a general description of several different
FIG. 3. Washing room for positive film.
types of installation. Some of the laboratories use the Vinten con-
tinuous developing machines, which are designed so as to be readily
adaptable to existing buildings with the minimum alterations.
For instance, the machines require rooms only nine feet high, and
the rooms need not all be on one floor. In the standard machine the
range of developing time, from three to eight minutes, is effected by
a change in speed of the film drive. Each machine, assuming that
208
I. D. WRATTEN
[J. S. M. P. E.
a development time of four minutes is required, has an output of 2250
feet per hour. Fig. 2 shows the developing tanks, on either side of
which are steel columns. Attached to these columns is the sprocket
drive shaft, which is driven by the vertical chains. The sprocket
shaft slides up on the two columns for the initial threading up of
leader film. In threading, the film is passed beneath the weighted
roller of the first sprocket, with the emulsion outward, then down into
the tank and up to the next sprocket, and so on, a weighted diabolo
hanging in each loop of film in the tank. After development, the
film passes into the next compartment for rinsing and fixing. The
rinsing and washing are done by fine jets of water directed upon the
films as the latter hangs suspended in the tanks, as shown in Fig. 3.
FIG. 4. Lawley automatic developing machine.
A suction nozzle removes all surplus water from the film before it
enters the drying room. In this room diabolos which hang in the
film loops are placed in racks which prevent them from swaying.
Conditioned air for drying the film is fed through ducts along the
sides of the room. Most laboratories using this type of equipment
employ some form of developer circulation and temperature control.
It is understood that no less than fifty-seven of these developing units
have been made by the manufacturers.
An interesting design is illustrated in Fig. 4. This type of plant
is installed in one of the largest laboratories attached to a studio.
The design makes use of long tubes for all parts of the process with the
exception of the initial stages of development, for which a large tank
is used, and the operation of drying the film, which takes place in the
conventional cabinets. The developer circulation system is shown in
the diagram. The solution passes at the rate of twenty gallons per
minute through a thermostatically operated temperature contrql
tank to a main reservoir, and thence to the tank in which the film is
developed. From there it passes into the fcmr developer tubes ancj
Feb., 1936] GREAT BRITAIN PROCESSING LABORATORIES
201)
is then pumped through the temperature control tank. Developer
replenisher solution is fed from the inlet side of the pump. In the
case of the washing tubes, the water enters at the bottom of each
tube and overflows at the top into a suitable gutter. There are thir-
teen of these tubes, and since a relatively small volume of water
is involved and the rate of flow is rapid, it will be seen that this is
a fairly efficient method of washing the film. The machine drive is
situated between the drying cabinet and the washing tubes, and
is fitted with a variable-speed gear.
The speed at which these machines run is in the neighborhood of
sixty feet per minute. In this connection, an interesting feature is
FIG. 5. Debrie automatic developing machine for negative film.
the control of development time, which is done without altering the
machine speed. Variation in development time is attained by means
of the four developer control tubes and four corresponding tubes
on the end containing the fixing bath. Each developer control tube
has its corresponding fixing control tube, and the pair of tubes con-
tains only a single loop of film between them; so that if developing
loop No. 1 is immersed only one quarter the length of the tube, the
loop in the No. 1 fixing control tube will be immersed for three quart-
ers of the tube length. Alterations in the length of film in each tube
are effected by pressing a small lever, which releases a clutch mecha-
nism and allows the film to pass into or out of the developer tube.
Indicators show the length of the film loop in each tube.
A vacuum suction system removes the fixing solution from the film
surface as the film passes into the final wash. The surface moisture
is removed in similar manner before the film passes into the drying
210
I. D. WRATTEN
[J. S. M. P. E.
cabinets. At the entrance of each drying cabinet is a sprocket; all
the other spindles bear rollers. A pivoted arm with rollers is located
at the bottom of each cabinet, by means of which the film tension is
automatically adjusted. Twenty of these Lawley machines are used
in the laboratory referred to, and although some of them differ ma-
terially in respect to the developer recirculation systems and the dry-
ing methods used, the fundamental design is similar in all cases.
One of the largest laboratories in this country uses Debrie equip-
ment. The developing end of one of these machines is shown in
FIG. 6. Washing tanks and drying cabinets on Debrie machine.
Fig. 5, this particular machine being used for developing picture nega-
tive film. The time that the film remains in any solution is made
known to the machine operator by the control boards at the top.
Alterations in the time of development or of fixing may be made by
moving a lever upon the appropriate control board, which is calibrated
in minutes and seconds. The speed of these machines is in the
neighborhood of 25 feet per minute per unit. Fig. 6 shows the wash-
ing and drying ends of fourteen of the positive machines. A feature
that is usual in most developing installations in this country is the
Feb., 1936] GREAT BRITAIN PROCESSING LABORATORIES
211
provision of a wall dividing the developing machine into a dark end
and a light end. A Carrier installation is used for conditioning the
air for these cabinets and also for controlling the temperature of the
developing solutions.
While the various machines so far described operate at a lower speed
in feet per minute than is usual in the U. S. A., one laboratory has
built three positive developing machines, each designed to give an
output of from 180 to 200 feet per minute. It is believed that, to
date, this is the fastest output for one machine operating upon a com-
mercial scale in any country. In these machines, which were de-
FIG. 7. Control room.
signed and built by the laboratory itself, the film is driven by fric-
tional means and the film perforations are not used. Each machine
uses 260 gallons of developer and fifty gallons of replenisher solution
for developing 180,000 feet of positive film in seventeen hours. Each
machine has a separate circulation system and temperature control,
and elaborate precautions are taken to safeguard the machines against
breakdowns during a run. So successful have the machines been
that four more are in course of construction.
The control of development is the responsibility of a sensitometry
212
I. D. WRATTEN
[J. S. M. P. E.
department, which controls the machines according to curves plotted
from exposures on the Eastman Type lib sensitometer, passed through
each machine at half-hourly intervals. Fig. 7 shows a corner of the
control room, with Eastman densitometers and a machine indicator
panel bearing the instruments for indicating the time of development
and the temperature. All instructions dealing with machine con-
trol are telephoned from the control room to the machine operator,
who has no responsibility other than the mechanical care of the ma-
chines.
1
! —
- (c
J^i
i
i
riLTCt
— -,
_, wn > w SULB
' — 1 TMCRMO STATS
IS
•
CP»CULATINC__fV.
FIG. 8. Silica gel air-conditioning plant.
Among many interesting features of these high-speed units is the
use of a closed-circuit silica gel air-conditioning plant for film drying,
the flow diagram for which is shown in Fig. 8. The main air cir-
cuit— passing through the cabinets, the filter, the circulating fan, and
back to the cabinets — is shown in dotted lines at the left of the dia-
gram.
At A , in the wet-air duct from the cabinets, a certain volume of air
is withdrawn by means of the adsorption fan and is forced through
the silica gel adsorbers back to the wet-air duct at B. That is, the
silica gel plant is in parallel with the main circuit between A and B,
and the moisture evaporated from the film in the cabinets is removed
in the silica gel adsorbers from the air withdrawn at A . A completely
closed circuit thus results.
In the duct leading to the cabinets are placed wet-bulb and dry-
Feb., 1936] GREAT BRITAIN PROCESSING LABORATORIES 213
bulb temperature regulators, the former of which controls the vol-
ume of wet air passed to the adsorbers, while the latter regulates the
dry-bulb temperature in the circuit in the following manner: The
air entering the adsorbers is heated, first, by the heat of adsorption,
which is greater than, but mainly due to, the latent heat of the water
vapor removed by the silica gel being converted into sensible heat;
FIG. 9. Continuous printer for sound and picture records.
and, second, by the heat left in the gel after activation. As more heat
is thus generated in the adsorbers than is required to evaporate the
moisture in the cabinets, the air must be cooled somewhat before it
is returned at B. The cooling is done in the heat exchanger, by at-
mospheric air flowing in counter current to the dried air and exhausted
to the stack by means of the activation fan, the by-pass damper regu-
lating the temperature by controlling the amount of dried air passing
through the exchanger.
214 I. D. WRATTEN [j. s. M. p. E.
There are four silica gel adsorbers, which function in the following
manner : The air to be dried passes through two of the adsorbers in
parallel, while the remaining two are being activated. The change-
over from activation to adsorption and vice versa is, however, done by
only one adsorber at a time, so that a very smooth continuous drying
effect is attained. The valves controlling the flow of adsorption air
and activation air rotate continuously, opening and closing the ports
to the various adsorbers in turn. The hot air to any adsorber is thus
completely shut oif before adsorption air is admitted.
Activation is accomplished by atmospheric air heated in a tubular
gas-fired heater. The air is drawn in through the filter located on
top of the heater, and its temperature is regulated by a thermostat
at the outlet. The wet air from the adsorbers, in addition to the
products of combustion, are exhausted to the atmosphere by the
activation fan.
Printing. — There is a wide variety of types of apparatus used in
England for printing motion picture film. The Bell & Howell model
D and the Debrie printer, the latter being of the intermittent type
with a continuous printing attachment for sound-track, are used by
two of the largest laboratories. Another large laboratory uses a
modified form of the Lawley printer. This English designed printer
is of the continuous type, and has a printing speed of ninety feet per
minute. Another make of printer is illustrated in Fig. 9, which is
also of the continuous type. The double unit shown prints both pic-
ture and sound at the rate of 100 feet per minute. The automatic
light change is effected by means of a fiber chart 70 millimeters wide,
which runs at a speed one-hundredth that of the negative to be
printed. Negative exposure is timed by running the picture nega-
tive and the fiber chart upon a special machine in which the chart and
the film run synchronously at their proper speed relation. A light
change is effected by means of a punch hole in the chart, and the posi-
tion of the hole relative to the width of the chart determines the
printer step value. There are twenty-one light changes.
In all English laboratories except those in which Bell & Howell
printers are used, printer light changes are effected by means of
external resistances in the lamp circuits. It is customary for the
laboratories to match their printers by means of simple photographic
photometry in which film stock is flashed at various printer points and
then developed and read on a densitometer.
The timing of motion picture film is done by visual methods, and
Feb., 1936] GREAT BRITAIN PROCESSING LABORATORIES 215
to assist in the operation, the well known Cinex sensitometer is used
by two laboratories. Sound-track is timed by density measurement.
Printing rooms are conditioned at 70 per cent relative humidity in
many of the laboratories.
Conclusion. — From this incomplete description of some of the meth-
ods and equipment used by motion picture laboratories in Great
Britain it will be seen that the tendency is to follow American prac-
tice generally. It must be understood, however, that the number of
release prints required of a production is considerably smaller than
would be the case in the U. S. A., and that, in consequence, many of
the English processing installations were designed with a view to
keeping down equipment costs.
There is no doubt that the adoption of the more accurate sensito-
metric control of development is having a pronounced effect upon
processing technic, especially with regard to developer recirculation
and replenishment. In this connection it is fortunate that both in
the U. S. A. and in Great Britain the Eastman Type lib instrument is
regarded as the standard motion picture laboratory sensitometer,
since such a condition greatly facilitates an exchange of sensitometric
data between the two countries.
The author wishes to acknowledge his indebtedness to Messrs.
J. Skittrell, R. Terraneau, W. Hitchcock, W. Lawley, and W. Vin-
ten, and the Silica Gel Co., Ltd., of London, for their kindness in
allowing the use of the illustrations for this paper.
REFERENCES
1 HUSE, E.: "Sensitometric Control in the Processing of Motion Picture Film
in Hollywood," J. Soc. Mot. Pict. Eng., XXI (July, 1933), No. 1, p. 54.
2 JONES, L. A.: "A Motion Picture Laboratory Sensitometer," /. Soc. Mot.
Pict. Eng., XVTI (Oct., 1931), No. 4, p. 536.
3 CAPSTAFF, J. G., AND PURDY, R. A.: "A Compact Motion Picture Densito-
meter," Trans. Soc. Mot. Pict. Eng., XI (Sept., 1927), p. 607.
SPRING, 1936, CONVENTION
CHICAGO, ILLINOIS
EDGEWATER BEACH HOTEL
APRIL 27TH-30TH, INCLUSIVE
Officers and Committees in Charge
PROGRAM AND FACILITIES
W. C. KUNZMANN, Convention Vice-P resident
J. I. CRABTREE, Editorial Vice-P resident
O. M. GLUNT, Financial Vice-P resident
G. E. MATTHEWS, Chairman, Papers Committee
E. R. GEIB, Chairman, Membership Committee
W. WHITMORE, Chairman, Publicity Committee
H. GRIFFIN, Chairman, Convention Projection Committee
O. F. NEU, Chairman, Apparatus Exhibit
LOCAL ARRANGEMENTS AND RECEPTION COMMITTEE
C. H. STONE, Chairman
R. P. BEDORE F. P. HECK J. H. McNABB
O. B. DEPUE B. J. KLEERUP R. F. MITCHELL
H. A. DEVRY S. A. LUKES C. G. OLLINGER
J. GOLDBERG J. E. McAuLEY B. E. STECHBART
CONVENTION PROJECTION COMMITTEE
H. GRIFFIN, Chairman
L. R. Cox J. GOLDBERG J. E. MCAULEY
H. A. DEVRY S. A. LUKES H. RYAN
Officers and Members of Chicago Local No. 110, I. A. T. S. E.
APPARATUS EXHIBIT
O. F. NEU, Chairman
H. A. DEVRY S. HARRIS
J. FRANK, JR. C. H. STONE
LADIES' RECEPTION COMMITTEE
MRS. C. H. STONE, Hostess
assisted by
MRS. B. W. DEPUE MRS. S. A. LUKES
MRS. H. A. DEVRY MRS. R. F. MITCHELL
MRS. F. B. HECK MRS. B. E. STECHBART
216
SPRING CONVENTION 217
BANQUET COMMITTEE
W. C. KUNZMANN, Chairman
O. B. DEPUE J. H. KURLANDER S. A. LUKES
J. GOLDBERG S. HARRIS R. F. MITCHELL
H. GRIFFIN C. H. STONE
HEADQUARTERS
The Headquarters of the Convention will be the Edgewater Beach Hotel,
where excellent accommodations and Convention facilities are assured. A
special suite will be provided for the ladies. Rates for SMPE delegates, Euro-
pean plan, will be as follows:
One person, room and bath $3 . 00
Two persons, double bed and bath 5 . 00
Two persons, twin beds and bath 5. 00
Parlor suite and bath, for two 10.00 and 12.00
Room reservation cards will be mailed to the membership of the Society in the
near future, and every one who plans to attend the Convention should return his
card to the Hotel promptly in order to be assured of satisfactory accommoda-
tions.
A special rate of fifty cents a day has been arranged for SMPE delegates who
motor to the Convention, in the Edgewater Beach Hotel fireproof garage. Private
de luxe motor coaches operated by the Hotel will be available for service between
the Hotel and the Chicago Loop area.
TECHNICAL SESSIONS
An attractive program of technical papers and presentations is being arranged
by the Papers Committee. All sessions and film programs will be held in the
East Lounge of the Hotel.
APPARATUS EXHIBIT
An exhibit of newly developed motion picture apparatus will be held in the
West Lounge of the Hotel, to which all manufacturers of equipment are invited to
contribute. The apparatus to be exhibited must either be new or embody
new features of interest from a technical point of view. No charge will be made
for space. Information concerning the exhibit and reservations for space should
be made by writing to the Chairman of the Exhibits Committee, Mr. O. F. Neu,
addressed to the General Office of the Society at the Hotel Pennsylvania,
New York, N. Y.
SEMI-ANNUAL BANQUET
The Semi-Annual Banquet and Dance of the Society will be held in the Ball-
room of the Edgewater Beach Hotel on Wednesday, April 29th, at 7:30 P.M.
Addresses will be delivered by eminent members of the motion picture industry,
followed by dancing and entertainment.
218
SPRING CONVENTION
[J. S. M. P. E.
INSPECTION TRIPS
Arrangements have been made for conducted tours of inspection to various
laboratories, studios, theaters, and equipment and instrument manufactories in
the Chicago area. Those firms who will act as hosts on these trips are :
Burton Holmes Films, Inc.
Bell & Howell Company
Chicago Film Laboratories, Inc.
Da-Lite Screen Company, Inc.
Enterprise Optical Manufacturing
Company
Herman H. DeVry, Inc.
Holmes Projector Company
J. E. McAuley Manufacturing
Company
Jam Handy Pictures Corp.
Jenkins & Adair, Inc.
National Screen Service, Inc.
Western Electric Company
Wilding Picture Productions, Inc.
Society of Visual Education
RECREATION
A miniature nine-hole golf course, putting greens, and regulation tennis courts,
maintained by the Hotel, will be available to SMPE delegates registered at the
Hotel. Details will be available at the registration desk. Special diversions
will be provided for the ladies, and passes to local theaters will be available to all
delegates registering.
Monday, April 27th.
9:00 a.m.
10:00 a.m.-12:00 p.m.
12:30 p.m.
2:00 p.m.-5:00 p.m.
8:00 p.m.
Tuesday, April 28th.
10:00 a.m.-12:00 p.m.
2:00 p.m.-5:00 p.m.
Wednesday, April 29th.
10:00 a.m.-12:00 p.m.
7:30 p.m.
PROGRAM
Registration
Society business
Committee reports
Technical papers program
Informal Get-Together Luncheon for members, their
families, and guests. Several prominent speakers
will address the gathering.
Technical papers program
Exhibition of newly released motion picture features
and shorts.
Technical papers program
Technical papers program
The evening of this day is left free for recreation,
visiting, etc.
Technical papers program
The afternoon of this day is left free for recreation
and for visits to the plants of various Chicago
firms serving the motion picture industry.
Semi- Annual Banquet and Dance of the SMPE:
speakers and entertainment.
Feb., 1936]
Thursday, April 30th.
10:00 a.m.-12:00 p.m.
2:00 p.m.-5:00 p.m.
SPRING CONVENTION
Technical papers program
Technical papers program
Society business
Adjournment of the Convention
219
SOCIETY SUPPLIES
Reprints of Standards of the SMPE and Recommended Practice may be obtained
from the General Office of the Society at the price of twenty-five cents each.
A limited number of reprints remain of the Report of the Projection Practice
Committee (Oct., 1935) containing the projection room layouts, and "A Glossary
of Color Photography." These may be obtained upon request, accompanied by
six cents in postage stamps.
Copies of Aims and Accomplishments, an index of the Transactions from October,
1916, to June, 1930, containing summaries of all the articles, and author and
classified indexes, may be obtained from the General Office at the price of one
dollar each. Only a limited number of copies remains.
Certificates of Membership may be obtained from the General Office by all
members for the price of one dollar. Lapel buttons of the Society's insignia are
also available at the same price.
Black fabrikoid binders, lettered in gold, designed to hold a year's supply of the
JOURNAL, may be obtained from the General Office for two dollars each. The
purchaser's name and the volume number may be lettered in gold upon the back-
bone of the binder at an additional charge of fifty cents each.
Requests for any of these supplies should be directed to the General Office of
the Society at the Hotel Pennsylvania, New York, N. Y., accompanied by the
appropriate remittance.
SOCIETY ANNOUNCEMENTS
BOARD OF GOVERNORS
At a meeting of the Board of Governors held at the Hotel Pennsylvania, New
York, N. Y., January 10, 1936, the budget for the year 1936 was drawn up and a
complete report rendered by the Financial Vice-President on the financial state
of the Society. In addition, further details of the approaching Chicago Conven-
tion were arranged as described in the preceding section of this issue of the JOUR-
NAL.
In view of the removal of the President of the Society, H. G. Tasker, to the
West Coast, Mr. E. Huse who was reelected in the October balloting to the Execu-
tive Vice-Presidency and who also resides upon the West Coast, resigned his
position so that another might be appointed to act as executive officer of the
Society upon the East Coast. Mr. S. K. Wolf, of New York, was appointed
Executive Vice-President, and Mr. Huse was reappointed to the Board to fill the
vacancy thus created by Mr. Wolf's appointment.
ATLANTIC COAST SECTION
At a meeting held in the auditorium of the Electrical Association of New York,
a paper, with demonstration, was presented by J. A. Miller on the subject of
"Millerfilm Recording." The system was originally described at the Hollywood
Convention last May, and was published in the July, 1935, issue of the JOURNAL.
This presentation included a number of improvements that had been made on
the equipment since that time. The meeting was well attended, and the presenta-
tion aroused considerable interest and discussion.
MID-WEST SECTION
The regular monthly meeting of the Section was held at the Electrical Associa-
tion, Chicago, 111., on January 16th, at which time J. C. Heck presented a paper
on the subject of "Screens and Their Applications in Theaters."
The meeting was well attended, and arrangements were completed for the
next meeting of the Section to be held on February 13th. Consideration was
given also to the activities of the members and officers of the Section during
the forthcoming Convention of the Society in Chicago, to be held on April 27th-
30th, inclusive, as described in the preceding section of this issue of the JOURNAL.
220
JOURNAL
OF THE SOCIETY OF
MOTION PICTURE ENGINEERS
Volume XXVI MARCH, 1936 Number 3
CONTENTS
Page
The Use of Cinematography in Aircraft Flight Testing
F. R. COLLBOHM 223
World Motion Picture Markets N. D. GOLDEN 232
Technical Advances in Soviet Russia A. F. CHORINE 240
The Motion Picture Industry in Japan Y. OSAWA 243
The Motion Picture Industry in India G. D. LAL 248
Problems of a Motion Picture Research Library. . H. G. PERCEY 253
The Historical Motion Picture Exhibit at the Los Angeles
Museum E. THEISEN 259
The Motion Picture Collection at the National Museum
A. J. OLMSTEAD 265
The Interrelation of Technical and Dramatic Devices of Motion
Pictures B. V. MORKOVIN 270
The Use of Motion Pictures in Human Power Measurement ....
J. M. ALBERT 275
William K. L. Dickson— Obituary G. E. MATTHEWS 279
Officers and Governors of the Society 282
List of Members
Alphabetical 285
Geographical 323
Spring, 1936, Convention at Chicago, 111., April 27th-30th,
Inclusive.. 338
JOURNAL
OF THE SOCIETY OF
MOTION PICTURE ENGINEERS
SYLVAN HARRIS, EDITOR
Board of Editors
J. I. CRABTREE, Chairman
O. M. GLUNT A. C. HARDY L. A. JONES
G. E. MATTHEWS
Subscription to non-members, $8.00 per annum; to members, $5.00 per annum,
included in their annual membership dues; single copies, $1.00. A discount
on subscriptions or single copies of 15 per cent is allowed to accredited agencies.
Order from the Society of Motion Picture Engineers, Inc., 20th and Northampton
Sts., Easton, Pa., or Hotel Pennsylvania, New York, N. Y.
Published monthly at Easton, Pa., by the Society of Motion Picture Engineers.
Publication Office, 20th & Northampton Sts., Easton, Pa.
General and Editorial Office, Hotel Pennsylvania, New York, N. Y.
Entered as second class matter January 15, 1930, at the Post Office at Easton,
Pa., under the Act of March 3, 1879. Copyrighted, 1936, by the Society of
Motion Picture Engineers, Inc.
Papers appearing in this Journal may be reprinted, abstracted, or abridged
provided credit is given to the Journal of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers
and to the author, or authors, of the papers in question. Exact reference as to
the volume, number, and page of the Journal must be given. The Society is
not responsible for statements made by authors.
Officers of the Society
President: HOMER G. TASKER, 3711 Rowland Ave., Burbank, Calif.
Past-President: ALFRED N. GOLDSMITH, 444 Madison Ave., New York, N. Y.
Executive Vice-P resident: SIDNEY K. WOLF, 250 W. 57th St., New York, N. Y.
Engineering Vice-President: LOYD A. JONES, Kodak Park, Rochester, N. Y.
Editorial Vice-President: JOHN I. CRABTREE, Kodak Park, Rochester, N. Y.
Financial Vice-President: OMER M. GLUNT, 463 West St., New York, N. Y.
Convention Vice-President: WILLIAM C. KUNZMANN, Box 6087, Cleveland, Ohio.
Secretary: JOHN H. KURLANDER, 2 Clearfield Ave., Bloomfield, N. J.
Treasurer: TIMOTHY E. SHEA, 463 West St., New York, N. Y.
Governors
MAX C. BATSEL, Front & Market Sts., Camden, N. J.
LAWRENCE W. DAVEE, 250 W. 57th St., New York, N. Y.
ARTHUR S. DICKINSON, 28 W. 44th St., New York, N. Y.
HERBERT GRIFFIN, 90 Gold St., New York, N. Y.
ARTHUR C. HARDY, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Mass.
EMERY HUSE, 6706 Santa Monica Blvd., Hollywood, Calif.
GERALD F. RACKETT, 823 N. Seward St., Hollywood, Calif.
CARRINGTON H. STONE, 205 W. Wacker Drive, Chicago, 111.
THE USE OF CINEMATOGRAPHY IN AIRCRAFT
FLIGHT TESTING*
F. R. COLLBOHM**
Summary. — A description oj some of the applications of motion pictures to test-
ing aircraft in flight, referring particularly to diving tests, water take-off, landing
speed, and load-deflection tests.
In recent years the flight testing of aircraft has undergone a very
radical change. A few years ago the testing of a new airplane con-
sisted usually of one or more initial flights during which the test
pilot got the "feel" of the controls and reported whether or not the
airplane flew normally and felt satisfactory to him. If something was
not exactly right, the difficulty was in most cases solved by a trial-
and-error process. After the airplane was pronounced satisfactorily
flyable, it was given a full-throttle speed test which may or may not
have been corrected for non-standard atmospheric conditions, depend-
ing upon the test pilot and the company for which he worked. Usually
this was sufficient, but in a few cases was supplemented by a test of
the climbing ability and ceiling of the airplane.
Today the flight test department of a modern airplane manufac-
turer proceeds upon a highly developed, scientific, and technical basis.
It is the aim of the flight test engineer to eliminate, or at least to
reduce greatly, all the hitherto uncontrolled variables affecting the
characteristics and performance of an airplane. The field of flight
testing has also become greatly broadened, so that not only are such
things as speed, climb, ceiling, and landing speed accurately deter-
mined, but also quantitative measures of stability, maneuverability,
efficiency, and many other related factors must be determined.
The search for greater accuracy and more coordinated information
early brought forth the manifold advantages attendant upon the use
of motion picture equipment in flight test work. The early tests with
this equipment were so successful that its widespread adoption fol-
* Presented at the Spring, 1935, Meeting at Hollywood, Calif.
** Douglas Aircraft Co., Inc., Santa Monica, Calif.
223
224 F. R. COLLBOHM [J. S. M. P. I
lowed rapidly. The uses of the motion picture camera may be divide
into three major groups, all of which are closely interrelated and ovei
lapping. First, the camera is very much utilized as a recording devic
to take rapid, accurate, and simultaneous readings of many instrt
ments. Second, it is used as a timing device, either by operating it a
a known, fixed speed, or by photographing the objects undergoin
test in conjunction with a timer or stop-watch. Third, the motio
picture camera has also been used as a direct measuring device b
making use of the geometrical properties of its optical system.
FIG. 1. Set-up of camera for photographing in-
strument board during dive test.
Dive Test. — An excellent example of the utility of motion pictur
equipment for recording purposes is illustrated by its use in dive tesl
ing. Airplanes are dive tested in order to ascertain whether all struc
tural parts are strong enough to bear the loads imposed by maximur
design air speed and acceleration. In the case of certain types c
military airplanes, this means that they must be flown vertical!;
downward until they have reached the highest speed possible, know:
as the terminal velocity. When they have reached this speed, the;
are suddenly pulled out of the dive; the change in direction cause
Mar., 1936] CINEMATOGRAPHY IN AIRCRAFT TESTING
225
a great centrifugal force to act directly outwardly from the center of
the turn — in other words, directly downward with respect to the
normal fore and aft axis of the airplane. The magnitude of the force
or acceleration thus attained is measured in g units or the equivalent
number of normal level flight loads. For example, when the airplane
is subjected to an acceleration of lOg, the apparent weight of every
item in it is ten times its weight when the plane is flying straight and
level. Also, the loads in some of the structural members will be ten
times their loads in unaccelerated flight.
During the performance of a test of this type, the pilot is required
FIG. 2. Special instruments installed for photographic recording of dive
test results.
to record a great number of different measurements, such as, during
a dive, the rate of increase of speed, the engine rpm., the control force
and the direction, the elevator angle, and the trimming tab angle;
at the start of the pull-out, the altitude, and the airspeed; during the
pull-out, the maximum indicated acceleration, the control force re-
quired, loss of altitude, the elevator angle, and many other related
observations. When it is realized that the total time from the start
of a dive until the completion of the pull-out is only a few seconds, and
that the pilot during this test is under a great strain, not only due to
the extreme precision of flying necessary, but also to the severe
physiological reactions associated with the high accelerations, it may
be readily understood that it is asking too much of any pilot to record
all the necessary information.
226
F. R. COLLBOHM
[J. S. M. P. E
It has been customary in the past to depend upon the pilot's mem
ory for furnishing the necessary data after the completion of the test
This method was necessarily inaccurate and unsatisfactory, so that
motion picture equipment was called upon to do the observing. This
decision resulted in the development of special remote reading in
struments, to be mounted upon the airplane's instrument board
together with the regular flight test instruments. These special in-
struments indicated the control forces exerted by the pilot, the posi
TIME (| SECOlfDS )
FIG. 3. Speed- time curve for water take-off of
flying boat with normal load.
tions of the various control surfaces of the airplane, and other neces
sary measurements. The motion picture camera was mounted so as
to take pictures of all the standard and special instruments, togethei
with a timer, or clock with a large seconds hand, which served as a
coordinating measurement against which to plot the variation of eacli
of the other instrument readings throughout the test (Figs. 1 and 2)
The accomplishment of a system of recording the data photo
graphically was not achieved without having to solve several problems
resulting from the high accelerations that were involved. As stated
before, during the pull-up each item in the airplane weighs many times
its normal weight, including the escapement in the clock and the gov-
Mar., 1936] CINEMATOGRAPHY IN AIRCRAFT TESTING 227
ernor in the camera. Much trouble was at first encountered in keep-
ing the clock going at lOg and in keeping the motion picture camera
from slowing down and overexposing or even stopping entirely. One
type of 16-mm. camera was finally found that seemed to run very
consistently and at uniform speed, and it was found that if the clock
were rotated about its axis approximately 171 degrees from the up-
right position it would continue to keep time. However, if moved
1 degree to either side of this new position, it would slow down, and
if rotated 2 degrees it would stop completely.
Water Take-Off. — Another type of test depending upon the record-
ing capabilities of the motion picture camera is the measurement of
the total water drag upon the hull of a flying boat at any instant
during take-off. Here again, the camera is depended upon to record
simultaneously several times per second, the readings of many differ-
ent instruments. As in the dive analysis, all instrument readings are
plotted against time, the common factor. The water drag is found as
follows :
(1 ) The rate of change of speed, or the slope of the speed-time curve, gives
the acceleration at each instant (Fig. 3).
(2) Since the weight of the plane is known, the force required to give the
above acceleration at each instant is determined (F = Ma}.
(3} Engine horsepower is calculated from the readings of several engine in-
struments, such as tachometers, manifold pressure gauges, carburetor air tem-
perature indicators, etc. This can be further corrected to give the propeller
thrust at each instant during the take-off.
(4) The total thrust developed by the propellers is divided among several
factors: the force required to accelerate the airplane, the drag of the water
upon the bottom of the hull, and the drag of the air upon the remainder of the
surface.
(5) Since the force required to give the observed acceleration is known, it
may be subtracted from the calculated thrust, leaving a remainder that counter-
balances exactly the air and water drag.
(6) Since the air drag at each speed has been determined by wind-tunnel tests
and flight tests, it may be subtracted, thus leaving a resultant curve of water
drag vs. velocity.
This type of test has proved very useful in determining the over-
load performances possible with flying boats and has shown very
close correlation with model tests made in the N. A. C. A. Model
Towing Basin. Motion pictures are widely used also to allow closer
and more exact analysis of the wave-forming and spray character-
istics of flying-boat hulls, both full-scale and in model tests. This
is particularly valuable since "slow-motion" analysis is possible.
228 F. R. COLLBOHM [J. S. M. P. E.
Landing Speed. — The motion picture camera is used as a timing
device for measuring the landing speeds of aircraft. A number of
methods are employed for the test, but all are fundamentally the
same as regards the function of the camera equipment. One method
of determining the true landing speed employs a motion picture
camera mounted upon the airplane pointing sidewise, horizontally
perpendicular to the thrust line. Equally spaced parallel lines are
painted upon the airport field just off the runway and perpendicular
to the normal landing path of the airplane. During the landing tests,
the camera is started just before the wheels touch the ground so as
to take pictures of the parallel lines marked upon the field as the plane
passes by them. The landings are so made that the wheels touch
the ground when opposite the group of parallel lines, and the point
of contact with the ground at each landing is recorded. Before each
landing, the camera is fully wound, and between alternate landings the
speed of the camera is checked by taking pictures of a stop-watch.
The landing speed of the airplane may then be found as follows: The
number of frames on the film from the point at which one of the marks is
lined up perfectly to the point at which the next mark is similarly lined up is
counted; and, since the number of frames per second is known, and the distance
between the lines is also known, the speed of the airplane from each line to the
next one can be readily calculated. This speed is determined between each pair
of the six or eight lines marked upon the field, and a curve is drawn to show the
speed and its variation through that distance. Since the point of contact with
the ground was recorded, the speed at that point of the curve is the actual ground
speed at the instant of landing. The wind speed is then added to give the true
landing speed.
It is important to note that since the camera takes pictures of lines
rather than points, the attitude of the airplane has no effect upon the
results ; even if the camera were not pointing in a direction parallel to
the lines upon the ground, it would still indicate when it was exactly
in line with one of them because the image of that line upon the film
would then be perpendicular to the horizon in the picture.
Direct Measurement. — The use of the motion picture camera as a
direct measuring instrument has been more wide spread in European
countries than in the United States, but its utilization here for this
purpose is progressing rapidly. The accuracy of tests of this type de-
pends entirely upon precise knowledge of the geometrical properties
of the optical system of the camera. In other words, the focal length
of the lens and the distance to the aperture plate must be known to a
high degree of precision. This type of motion picture test can prob-
Mar., 1936] CINEMATOGRAPHY IN AIRCRAFT TESTING 229
ably be illustrated best by describing a method of determining the
landing speed of an airplane. In making the test, the camera is
mounted upon the ground in the middle of the landing runway in
such a position that the plane lands directly toward the camera, but,
of course, comes to a full stop before reaching it. The test consists
simply in photographing the plane as it approaches for the landing and
until after the wheels are on the ground, with the camera operating
at a known constant speed. The distance of the plane from the
FIG. 4. Installation of motion picture camera in cabin
of transport airplane for wing deflection measurement.
camera in each frame can later be determined by simple geometry if
some prominent dimension of the plane is known, such as, for example,
the span of the wings or the distance from one landing wheel to the
other. Since the distance between the plane and the camera can be
found for each frame, and since the time interval between frames is
known, the velocity with which the plane moves toward the camera
can be determined in the usual manner by dividing the change in
distance between frames by the corresponding time interval. The
same procedure has been used also to determine the take-off and the
230
F. R. COLLBOHM
[J. S. M. P. E.
initial climb of aircraft, to ascertain their capability of climbing over
a fictitious obstacle at some specified distance from the starting point.
Load-Deflection Test. — Another test in which the camera is used as
a measuring device in a different manner is that in which the load-
deflection curve of a wing or other part of the structure is to be de-
termined in flight. It has been customary in the past to turn an air-
plane upside down upon the ground and load the wing with lead or
sand bags according to a calculated or arbitrarily determined distribu-
tion, checking the deflection for various increments of load. The
curve of wing deflection vs. load could then be plotted and compared
with the calculated or theoretical curve. This kind of test was
FIG. 5. View through camera, showing wing tip
scales with relation to cross-wire in camera, with plane
on ground.
very difficult and expensive, particularly with the larger airplanes, so
it was decided to load the airplane structure in the air and measure
the wing deflection photographically for each increment of load.
Not only did this motion picture test save time and money, but it also
eliminated any possibility of error due to variation between the actual
distribution of the force upon the wing and the test distribution as
applied with lead or sand weights upon the ground. To carry out the
test, a standard motion picture camera with a special cross-wire built
into the aperture plate was very rigidly mounted upon the center-line
of the airplane with the lens pointing directly out toward the tip of one
of the wings (Fig. 4). Upon the wing tip were mounted two
vertical scales, one near the leading edge and one near the trailing
edge, with graduations visible through the camera lens, A visual
Mar., 1936] CINEMATOGRAPHY IN AIRCRAFT TESTING 231
accelerometer was mounted upon the instrument board to enable the
pilot to pull up the airplane to any desired acceleration, and a record-
ing accelerometer was installed at the center of gravity of the airplane.
The plane, which was fully loaded, was then flown at the predeter-
mined airspeed and suddenly pulled up to whatever acceleration was
desired. At the same time, the motion picture camera was operated,
recording the deflection of the wing tip, both front and rear, by the
change in scale position with reference to the fixed cross-wire in the
camera aperture plate (Fig. 5) . Successive pull-ups were made, each
slightly higher than the one preceding, until the maximum proof load
was reached, the camera recording the wing deflections for each
pull-up. A plot of the data obtained with the motion picture film and
the accelerometer records yielded the load-deflection curve ior the
wing, together with information as to its torsional stiffness by finding
the difference between the deflections of the front and the rear scales
upon the wing tip.
WORLD MOTION PICTURE MARKETS5
NATHAN D. GOLDEN**
Summary. — A discussion of some of the difficulties of marketing American-pro-
duced films in foreign countries, with particular reference to the problems of taxation,
censorship, government subsidies for the development of home production, quotas,
and contingents.
During the past few years the motion picture map of the world
has had its face lifted in many respects. While formerly our main
problem in foreign markets was that of overcoming the language diffi-
culties that followed closely upon the introduction of the sound-film,
most of the old problems, such as high taxes, censorship, government
subsidies for the development of home production, quotas, and con-
tingents are still with us.
In the early days of sound, the dialog in American films sent to for-
eign markets was in the English language. Foreign audiences mar-
velled at the fact that the actors were actually speaking. Of course,
only those who understood English were able to derive the most en-
joyment from the picture, so that later dialog in the foreign tongue
was superimposed upon each scene of the film, the American actors
continuing to speak English. Foreign audiences accepted the ar-
rangement at the outset, but soon tired of it and demanded sound-
films in their native tongues. This led to the importation to America
of numerous foreign actors to do the speaking for the American stars.
While the early attempts were, at best, crude, they served the purpose
of satisfying the foreign patrons and thus enabling the American in-
dustry to maintain its supremacy upon the screens of the world.
The next cycle in dubbed films disclosed the demands of theater
patrons in non-English-speaking markets for films having more action
and less dialog. By that time the art of dubbing was so well de-
veloped that a Wallace Berry or an Ann Harding could portray screen
* Presented at the Fall, 1935, Meeting at Washington, D. C.
** Chief, Motion Picture Section, U. S. Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Com-
merce, Washington, D. C.
232
WORLD MOTION PICTURE MARKETS 233
characters in any language so perfectly that even the foreigners them-
selves are unable to discover the deception. With dubbing no longer
a source of concern for American producers, a new problem in foreign
marketing presented itself in the form of legislation designed to cur-
tail the exhibition of dubbed films, insisting that all the dubbing be
done in local studios by local actors and technicians. Thus it will be
noted that there is a decided trend in foreign countries toward estab-
lishing home industries with native actors speaking the mother
tongues. Although the films produced thus far are admittedly of an
inferior quality, they have nevertheless invariably drawn well at the
box-offices because of the appeal to nationalistic loyalty — and despite
the fact that the foreign audiences are well aware that their home pro-
ductions are not at all comparable to those of American origin. The
long runs that such foreign films are enjoying at the theaters tend to
diminish the number of play-dates for our American films, and, as a
result, influence the amount of our business abroad. Reports re-
ceived from Trade Commissioners at the Bureau of Foreign and Do-
mestic Commerce and the Consular offices of the State Department
substantiate these remarks regarding the popularity of local produc-
tions and their progress. Confronted with this situation, it may be
said to their credit that our American stars and their dubbed pictures
retain their popularity and are still the best money-makers for all
foreign theater operators.
In Brazil, during the past six months, were exhibited two strictly
domestic feature films which gained considerable popular acclaim
and proved highly profitable to their producer. The first was a seven-
reel feature released during February, under the title of Hello, Hello,
Brazil. This picture enjoyed the longest run of any feature produc-
tion thus far made in the country (five weeks) and netted the pro-
ducers approximately $31,000. Subsequently, another feature film
entitled Students was released by the same producer, which, while not
as popular or profitable as the former, proved a financial success.
The motion picture industry in Argentina during the past few years
has developed comparably to those in other countries. A limited
number of Spanish-language pictures has been shown, and, judging
from the cordial reception accorded the pictures, it is obvious that
the natural preference of the Spanish-speaking peoples is for pictures
in their own language. During 1934, eight features were produced in
Argentina, and it is reported that so far during the current year the
total has increased to twelve, with ten more in preparation. It is
234 N. D. GOLDEN [J. S. M. p. E.
understood that all the Argentine studios, totalling twenty-one, are
wired for the production of sound pictures. No local producer has
failed during the past 18 months, and it is estimated that the Argen-
tine production for 1935 amounts to about twenty-two features. It is
planned to show these pictures throughout Argentina, and possibly in
other neighboring countries, the mother language of which is Spanish.
In Spain the film industry is at present small, but, in spite of finan-
cial reverses on the part of some of the companies, steady progress is
being made. From a production of five feature films in 1932, the
domestic industry rose to twenty-four full-length pictures in the fol-
lowing year. Estimates for 1935 credit local producers with from
twenty-five to thirty feature films. Some of the Spanish films have
been successful financially, and have indicated the possibility of a
bright future for the industry, since Latin America is looked to as
offering a great export market for Spanish films when they come into
their own. Production thus far has been handicapped by lack of first-
class equipment and expert technicians, but the groundwork is being
established for an important permanent industry. None of the films
thus far produced in Spain deserve particularly high rating, but they
have been warmly received by the Spanish public.
Additional competition is expected also from Argentina, where the
motion picture industry is developing, as already noted, and from
Mexico, as well. Films from those countries, being in Spanish, will
undoubtedly enjoy an advantage in Spain. It is important that any
films made in Spain should also capture the Spanish psychology, and
in that respect Spanish films made in Mexico or Argentina are re-
garded as more likely to succeed than Spanish films made in the
United States.
The quality of the feature pictures produced locally in Finland
(in the Finnish language) is generally regarded as decidedly inferior
to that of American and European productions. The majority of
the pictures, however, have had particularly successful runs because
of the natural desire of the Finnish-speaking population of Finland
(almost 90 per cent) to listen occasionally to pictures produced in
their own language. That a greater number of feature pictures has
not been made locally is due principally to the limited capital of the
producing companies.
We find that Chinese pictures, with their typically Chinese settings,
continue to attract the general populace in China. Only in the case of
a few action and comedy pictures has there been any substantial de-
Mar., 1936] WORLD MOTION PICTURE MARKETS 235
mand recently from the purely Chinese market for American pictures.
The extent to which the outlying markets have been taken over by
Chinese sound and silent films may be realized from the fact that, in
Fukien Province, of 150 pictures imported into Foochow in 1934, 90
per cent were Chinese. Pictures that showed the best box-office
returns were those in which the action dominated the dialog. With
few exceptions, the most popular actors were also those who de-
pended largely upon pantomime rather than dialog for effects.
There are approximately 40 producing studios in India, according
to the most reliable list. A number of Indian companies have made
excellent profits on their pictures during the past year or so, which
has caused a large number of individuals to go into the picture busi-
ness for the purpose of making a single picture, utilizing the leisure
time of directors, actors, and staff of the studios, and picking up
popular Indian plays upon the basis of small royalties or outright
purchase. A year ago a run of two or three weeks for an Indian pic-
ture was regarded a very outstanding event, but many pictures dur-
ing the past year have run two to three weeks and in some cases more.
In one instance recently an Indian picture was shown for more than
11 weeks.
In Hungary, operators claim that the Hungarian rural districts de-
mand no other than Hungarian sound-films. Listening to a strange
language distracts the attention from Hungarian titles, and is tire-
some for the average Hungarian theatergoer.
Behind the impetus of production in foreign countries of the world
are governmental subsidies granted to producers. It is becoming
increasingly difficult for American distributors to release their
pictures abroad because of heavy burdens imposed upon them.
After all, each foreign market will return only so much money on any
given picture, and there are but so many play-dates available.
QUOTAS AND CONTINGENTS
Governmental control of foreign films was introduced in Germany
in 1916 as part of a general control of imported products, was con-
tinued after the war as a protective measure for the German film in-
dustry, and proved to be the forerunner of similar control measures
in other European countries. Among the various forms, the best-
known controls today are contingents and quotas. Quota laws origi-
nally promulgated for the silent films have since been revised to in-
clude sound-films. New legislation is designed to stimulate the
236 N. D. GOLDEN [j. s. M. p. E.
growth of home industries to be subsidized by means of funds col-
lected from the operation of the quota systems.
There are at present fourteen countries throughout the world that
have among their statutes some form of quota or contingent regula-
tions affecting the importation or limiting the exhibition of American
motion pictures. Five other foreign countries are agitating for film-
control legislation, and in a number of other countries the tax rates
are so great that it is difficult for American companies to operate
successfully in those markets. In two particular cases, France and
Mexico, new regulations recently proposed are so drastic that if en-
acted they will virtually force American producers to withdraw from
the market or turn over their branch-offices to Commissions appointed
to take charge of not only the distribution of the film but collecting
and allocating the money accruing to the distributors as rental for
the films.
In France the present film regulations terminate July 1, 1936. A
draft decree has just been proposed, which, if made effective, would
replace the present regulations. It would then be mandatory that
30 per cent of all feature films shown quarterly in any given theater be
French, and for all films such as newsreels and documentary films the
proportion would be not less than 20 per cent. These percentages
could subsequently be altered — which would open possibilities in the
future of either further curtailment or increase of the number of
foreign films that might be exhibited. This draft would further
create a National Agency to which deductions would be paid from
the net receipts of theaters for authors, composers, and producers as
their shares of the receipts. Article 46 of this proposal would give to
the Agency absolute powers and the right of handling a large share of
all the funds circulating in the French motion picture industry. Our
American distributors, in the light of this article, would not only be
dependent upon the Agency for the payment of film rentals, but would
be subject to the plan of percentage deductions intended to meet the
administrative expenses of the National Agency. Any surplus of
such deductions could be used to promote the development of the
cinematographic art and industry in France. If our American com-
panies were forced to operate under the proposed decree, it would be
tantamount to forcing them to contribute money for the creation of a
local industry, involving the danger of their being ultimately elimi-
nated from the market.
In Mexico a law has recently been proposed that would create an
Mar., 1936] WORLD MOTION PICTURE MARKETS 237
autonomous organization (Institute Nacional de la Industria Cine-
matografica) with a maximum capital of two million pesos ($555,-
200), which would be supplied by the Federal Treasury. The ob-
ject of the organization would be to make loans to worthy Mexican
producers in order to encourage the Mexican industry. The pro-
posal is so restrictive that a domestic or foreign company could not
operate in Mexico unless it became a member of the organization.
One of the most important provisions under which this Institute
would operate stipulates that it would have full authority to concede
or not to concede permission for the importation of foreign pictures
into Mexico. However, before permission would be granted for show-
ing foreign films, it would be necessary to submit the films to the In-
stitute for inspection and revision. Another section of the proposal
specifies that the taxes now paid on national and foreign films as im-
portation and exhibition duties would be doubled; but that films
exhibited under the auspices of and with the approval of the Institute
would pay only half the taxes levied upon other pictures not so ap-
proved. Foreign films permitted to enter Mexico would be under-
stood to be exhibited by authority of the Institute.
Under the terms of this proposed law, American films might gradu-
ally be eliminated from the Mexican market, and, so far as Mexican
business is concerned, our producers would be dependent upon the
benevolence of the Institute. American representation through its
own distributing organizations would be eliminated, since the distri-
bution of American films would be regulated solely by a governmen-
tal agency, the primary purpose of which would be to produce, dis-
tribute, and exhibit Mexican films.
As a result of the failure of American companies in Mexico to ob-
tain relief from the high taxes imposed upon them, all companies
ceased distributing their product there as of September 30, 1935.
Since then, only Mexican and European films have been shown or
distributed.
In Great Britain, too, we hear rumblings of a movement for a
change in the Quota Act of 1927, which automatically terminates in
1938. An astonishing document has recently been laid before the
Film Group of the Federation of British Industries containing amend-
ments to the Act of 1927. The main point suggested in this document
as reported by the British trade press, is that at the termination of
the existing Act a new Act should be instituted running to 1950, by
the terms of which the distribution quota should rise from 30 to 100
238 N. D. GOLDEN [j. s. M. p. E.
per cent of the foreign product for the preceding year. The exhibitor
during this period would show an increasing percentage of British
product, commencing at 17.5 per cent in 1938 and reaching a maxi-
mum of 42.5 per cent in 1950. The proposal further provides that
each distributor should acquire in any one year not fewer British
films than a stated percentage based upon his foreign film footage
registered during the previous year, and that his total expenditure
upon British productions should be not less than the same percentage
of his total receipts in respect of foreign material.
This virtually means that if a distributor registered in the year
1938 300,000 feet of foreign film, and received in foreign rentals
$3,000,000 during that year, for the year 1939 he would be required
to register at least 30 per cent of 300,000 feet, i. e., 90,000 feet of
British film, and the total cost of such British film would have to be
at least 30 per cent of $3,000,000, or approximately $900,000.
While the possibility that the proposals described above may ac-
tually become laws is rather remote, the proposals do give us a good
idea of the trend of thought of our foreign competitors and the ex-
tremes to which they are resorting in their efforts to reduce the screen-
ing time of American-made pictures.
CENSORSHIP
Censorship has been the cause of considerable concern to distribu-
tors in foreign markets. Without exception, the regulations are be-
coming more drastic, even to the extent of creating measures to regu-
late the morals of the public during their attendance at motion pic-
ture theaters. An incident in point is a recent consular report from
Bagdad, Iraq, advising that the mayor of that city has issued an
order to all theaters that "during matinee performances men and
women must not sit together, and that during night performances
they may do so in boxes and galleries, but not in the second- and
third-class sections."
The purpose of this paper has been merely to point out some of the
dangers confronting American film producers in a number of the for-
eign markets. Although some of the statements may seem rather
pessimistic, it is not intended to convey the idea that American pic-
tures will reach the point of being completely removed from the
screens throughout the world. Striking a more cheerful note, it may
be said that quality films will never be submerged, and that though
we may lose some screening time as a result of local production
Mar., 1936] WORLD MOTION PICTURE MARKETS 239
abroad, the pictures of high entertainment value that American
producers have been turning out, and those having international
appeal, will always find a market despite any legislative or national-
istic barriers that may be erected in foreign markets. Present
handicaps may mean that we shall send fewer pictures abroad, but
such pictures as we do send will return revenues commensurate
with their superior quality. Time will supply a definite answer to
the questions now at issue. But factual studies are quite convincing
that the energy, resources, and producing genius of the American
industry will serve to sustain for us a strong position in the picture
houses of the world.
TECHNICAL ADVANCES IN SOVIET RUSSIA*
A. F. CHORINE**
Summary. — A brief description of recent progress in motion picture development
in the U. S. S. R. Reference is made to a combined machine for film cutting, sound
mixing, and re-recording; a process of recording mechanically upon old film, and
the use of such recordings on location and for radio broadcasting; a new continuous
battery-operated portable projector; a photocell involving multiple secondary emission;
recording sound upon separate film synchronized with the picture film; and trans-
mission of sound pictures by television.
I am happy to be present at this conference of engineers represent-
ing the highest cinema technic in the world. Permit me to convey
to you the greetings of the Chief Soviet Cinema Administration and
all the scientific and technical cinema workers of the U. S. S. R. I
shall try to describe in a few brief words the motion picture develop-
ments in which we are engaged today.
With regard to single-film sound cameras, we are working upon a
number of small improvements in operation, regulation, etc., one of
which relates to an apparatus permitting the director, the recordist,
and others to observe how the sound is being recorded while the
picture is being shot. The title of the picture and the name of the
sound engineer, also, can be printed automatically upon the sound
negative, for the purpose of identification.
We have constructed another machine for combined film cutting,
sound mixing, and re-recording. This machine has two heads for
sound-film, or one for mechanically recorded film, a phonographic
mechanism having two different speeds, and a circuit for three
microphones. All the connections and combinations of the films are
controlled electromagnetically from one keyboard.
All the studios of the U. S. S. R. are now recording mechanically
upon old film for the purpose of obtaining on location records of a
large variety of sounds, folk songs of the various nationalities, etc.
* Presented at the Fall, 1935, Meeting at Washington, D. C.
** Ail-Union Electrical Trust, Moscow, Russia.
240
TECHNICAL ADVANCES IN RUSSIA 241
The system has proved desirable because of the negligible, or entirely
non-existent, cost; and, in addition, it permits playing back
immediately what has been recorded. To test the device the
Leningrad Broadcasting System broadcast 70 per cent of their pro-
grams with mechanical recordings on old film over a period of three
months. The first recordings were of entire operas, performed by the
best operatic companies in the Soviet Union, as well as of the best
concert performances and news events. The experiment was crowned
with practical and technical success.
Efforts are now being made to improve the construction of sound-
reproducing apparatus so as to reduce the cost of operation for both
large and small theaters.
Great interest is being shown in the Soviet Union in a movement
to make sound pictures available to the remotest corners of Siberia,
to sections of the North, and to Turkestan, and also to the reading
rooms of the collective farms. The chief requirement for such installa-
tions is that it should be possible to show pictures, with direct or
alternating current, at places where no commercial supply is available.
For that purpose I have devised a special system employing a small
projector in which the film moves continuously. Owing to the fact
that the projector does not have a pull-down mechanism, a very low-
powered motor can be used for the drive. The resulting mechanical
system is very simple, and can be employed for mechanical recording.
The entire installation, including amplifier, projection lamp, motor,
etc., is operated by a 6-volt, starting-type battery. Everything is
reduced to the utmost simplicity. There is not even a photocell.
The apparatus is now being given a field-test, at the conclusion of
which a description of the system will be published.
A new type of photocell, involving multiple secondary emission,
has been developed for use in sound pictures which is about a
million times as sensitive as the previous cells. Samples of such
photocells have been made and tested, and substituted in large thea-
ters for all the tubes in the amplifiers except the last. Under labora-
tory conditions they have given satisfactory results. One short-
coming of the cells at present is the comparatively high voltage,
about 2000 volts, that must be applied. There is no doubt that
the system has a promising future. I have just learned that
Dr. Zworykin has produced a similar cell in the RCA Laboratories.
A theater is Leningrad is experimenting in reproducing mechani-
cally recorded sound from a separate film synchronized with the pic-
242 A. F. CHORINE
ture. Such a system would make it possible to show foreign pictures
and to equip silent films with sound in very short order.
Laboratory experiments are now being concluded on the trans-
mission of sound pictures by means of television. Use is made of an
optical disk with achromatic lenses. The legibility is from 120 to
180 lines. In 1936, experiments will be made in Moscow on the trans-
mission of films on a wavelength of 7.5 meters (4 megacycles). At
the beginning of the experiment, 50 receiving sets with cathode screens
will be installed in various parts of the city.
Extraordinary interest is being shown in dubbing, because there
are no fewer than seventy minor nationalities in the Soviet Union,
each having its own language, and each language being spoken by
great numbers of persons. A number of these nationalities now have
their own cinema studios. It is obvious how very desirable it is
to be able to make pictures in the Soviet Union in at least three or four
languages.
The Chief Administration's Experimental Factory for Cinema
Equipment has recently produced the first experimental perforation
machines for printing and developing pictures. Up to now, all such
machines were obtained abroad.
Closing this brief report, I extend to you, in the name of the Chief
Administration, headed by Mr. Shumiatsky, an invitation to the
Conference of Engineers to be held at Moscow in the Spring of 1936
in conjunction with the Cinema Festival. In the near future I
intend to submit to the Society detailed descriptions of the apparatus
mentioned above.
THE MOTION PICTURE INDUSTRY IN JAPAN*
Y. OSAWA**
Summary. — A description of the status of motion picture production, distribu-
tion, and exhibition in Japan, mainly from a commercial point of view, but with
brief reference to some of the operating problems.
The motion picture has in recent years, in Japan, gradually re-
placed older forms of public entertainment, such as Kabuki and other
stage dramas, and has now established itself in a firm position among
the leading industries of the country. According to government
statistics, nearly 180,000,000 Japanese visited the motion picture
houses during the last year. It is quite evident that the motion
picture will become still more important in the public life of the
Japanese people in the coming years, and the real growth of the in-
dustry seems now to have begun.
Nevertheless, the artistic and technical standards of the Japanese
motion picture are still in an elementary state. There are many
scientific problems to be studied and cinematic experiences to be ac-
quired. This paper will briefly describe the present condition of the
motion picture industry in Japan, sketching its various aspects and
problems.
PRODUCTION
During 1934, a total of 440 feature pictures were produced by the
Japanese studios: the three major companies, the Shochiku-Shinko
group, Nikkatsu, and Daito Eiga producing three-fourths of them;
and the minor and independent studios, altogether eight or ten in
number, contributing the remaining one-fourth. In the latter group
are included the Photo-Chemical Laboratory, more commonly known
as PCL, of Tokyo, and J. O. Studio, Ltd., of Kyoto, which are the two
new financial interests that came into the motion picture field about
three years ago.
Today an average Japanese feature picture is made in 8 to 10 reels,
* Presented at the Spring, 1935, Meeting at Hollywood, Calif,
** J. Osawa & Co., Ltd., Kyoto, Japan,
243
244 Y. OSAWA [J. S. M. p. E.
whereas until only a few years ago no picture was regarded as a "fea-
ture" unless it contained more than 15 or sometimes even 20 reels.
The number of release prints usually required for distribution varies
from 12 to 15, a sufficient number for circulation throughout the
country in the ordinary case. Sometimes, in the case of a particu-
larly popular picture, 20 or 30 copies may be made ; but such is the
exception rather than the rule.
The yearly consumption of raw film stock in Japan is approximately
50,000,000 feet of positive and 5,000,000 feet of negative. Agfa, Du-
pont, and Eastman are used principally, Eastman taking a greater
share of the business. During the last year, two Japanese companies
entered into manufacturing standard motion picture raw film upon a
large scale : namely, Fuji Film Manufacturing Company, a subsidiary
of the Mitsui interest, and Oriental Photo Industrial Company, an
experienced manufacturer of general photographic materials. Both
companies have already placed their sample films upon the market,
but the quality is not yet sufficiently satisfactory for acceptance by
the major companies. Although they have not yet attempted to pro-
duce other than positive film, it will still be some time before they
offer serious competition to imported films.
The processing laboratories of the major studios are generally
rather poorly equipped, with the old rack method still in use, under
the visual, or rather temperamental control of the watchman on the
floor. However, there are now two modern processing laboratories
using up-to-date machine developers with thermostatic control of the
chemicals and regular air-conditioning systems. One is the Far East
Film Laboratory, in Kyoto, which processes Eastman film, and the
other that of the J. O. Studio, also in Kyoto, which handles Agfa film.
A new laboratory is now being built in Tokyo by the J. O. Studio,
which will begin operating by the end of May this year.
Although the acceptance of the talking picture by the Japanese
audience has been quite decisive, production has not kept pace with
the public demand, due mainly to the financial weakness of the major
studios and to the inability of the theaters to equip themselves with
sound apparatus. While many attempts had been made since 1930 to
produce Japanese "talkies," a really successful sound picture was not
produced until 1932. Since that year the major companies have re-
luctantly started producing them, but with little progress. It was not
until 1934 that "sound" was seriously taken up. Although the prog-
ress of sound-film in Japan has been very slow up to this time, 1935
Mar., 1936] MOTION PICTURES IN JAPAN 245
will see a rapid increase in the production of talkies and perhaps by
the end of 1936 all the important Japanese pictures will be sound
pictures.
While the number of feature pictures produced in Japan is rela-
tively large, the quality of the average Japanese film has not yet at-
tained the high technical and artistic standard of the average Ameri-
can or good European picture. Japanese producers yet have much to
learn in the field of story and scenario preparation, subject matter
treatment, editing technic, etc. Also, an equally important defect is
found in the poor working conditions in the Japanese studios, particu-
larly the inadequacy of supply of mechanical equipment and appara-
tus. The situation is almost tragic as regards sound recording.
Nikkatsu Studio is the only Western Electric licensee in Japan;
and J. O. Studio, Kyoto, is the only studio equipped with RCA re-
cording apparatus. Other studios, including Shochiku and PCL, use
their own sound systems. Other mechanical equipment and facilities
are also sadly lacking in most of the older studios. Such new appara-
tus as the zoom lens, perambulator, projection background process,
fully automatic printer, color process, etc., are still in the realm of
luxury, and about which Japanese technicians are allowed only to
dream.
The cost of an average Japanese picture is incredibly low. An aver-
age talkie, a fair-sized feature picture of 7000 to SOOO feet, with a
shooting period of 45 days, is made within a total of between 30,000
to 50,000 yen, including the story, scenario, salaries of director,
cameramen, talents, musicians, sound engineers, and all other techni-
cians, sets and costumes, location expenses, royalty for sound record-
ing, etc. — in fact, all the items that are necessary in producing a com-
plete picture. The low cost of production, necessitated by the distri-
bution limitations which will be described later, is responsible without
question to a great extent for the poor quality of the average Japanese
picture.
DISTRIBUTION
There are approximately 2000 motion picture theaters operating in
Japan today. Although most of the older houses are very poorly
constructed buildings, the new theaters are of very modern design
with every up-to-date accommodation. They are air-conditioned and
well furnished, with comfortable chairs. According to the latest
figures, only one-half of the movie theaters in Japan are now equipped
with sound reproducers, leaving nearly 1000 theaters yet to
246 Y. OSAWA [J. S. M. P. E.
be wired. These additional installations will very likely be made
within the next two years. Of the approximately 1000 theaters already
wired, only 10 per cent are equipped with either Western Electric or
RCA reproducers. About 40 theaters have the Tobis-Klangfilm sys-
tem, and the remaining 85 per cent have divers other sound systems,
both American and Japanese, of rather poor quality.
The average admission fee of a Japanese movie house is 50 sen in
the first-run week in the big cities, and 30 to 20 sen in the smaller
towns. After the second run, the fee usually drops to 20 to 10 sen.
Although the admission fees are low, a good first-run theater with a
"hit" program can earn a gross of 20,000 to 30,000 yen in the first
week. A very popular film just recently earned a gross of 80,000 yen
in a two weeks' run in one theater in Osaka, which was deemed excep-
tionally good.
The program always consists of two feature pictures with one or
two shorts, thus making one performance about three hours long.
The theater usually runs four performances a day.
Japanese movie fans can be separated into two distinct categories :
the class audience and the mass audience. There seems to be no
middle ground between them. Therefore, a Japanese picture must be
either an exceedingly fine film of the highest quality, which will be
ardently admired by the student and the intellectual classes patroniz-
ing the better theaters in the big cities; or it must be a low-level pic-
ture with much excitement or pathos which will win strong support
from the lower working class constituting the bulk of the movie audi-
ence in the smaller towns and in the country. Among the former,
such films as The Chorus of a Million produced by Victor Japan and
J. O. Studio, and Botchan by PCL, have been recent successes; for the
latter class, love themes or sword fighting plays (corresponding to the
Wild West pictures) have always been popular.
Foreign films are generally patronized only by the student and the
intellectual classes, except wild animal pictures, which are very popu-
lar among all classes. During 1934, 340 foreign feature pictures
were released in Japan (80 per cent American and 20 per cent English
and European), this number being the highest in the last five years.
With the advent of talkies, the language barrier was at first be-
lieved to be a very serious obstacle. In fact, with the early pictures,
an interpreter, called a Benshi, standing upon the stage in the
dark, shouted a translation of the dialog along with the original sound,
thus making it nearly impossible for either the original dialog or the
Mar., 1936] MOTION PICTURES IN JAPAN 247
translator to be understood. Now all foreign films have their dialog
superimposed upon the film in Japanese titles, thus eliminating the
interference of the Benshi. Recently two or three attempts have been
made to dub the Japanese language into the sound-track. The most
successful attempt was made in the RKO picture, Flying Devils. Its
result was very satisfactory, and there is good possibility of adapt-
ing the method in the future to certain types of foreign pictures.
The best received foreign pictures in Japan during the last year were
// Happened One Night, Footlight Parade, Der Kongress Danzt, Le
Pacquebot Tenacity, Poil de Carot, etc. The biggest box-office successes
were King Kong, Tarzan pictures, and Chaplin and Lloyd pictures.
Because of the superior technic and treatment of foreign pictures,
the demand for good foreign films will continue.
CONCLUSION
The vital problem facing the Japanese motion picture industry to-
day is the improvement of the technic and workmanship of their films,
so that the standard will be raised to the international level in tech-
nical quality and artistic treatment. At present, earnest efforts are
being made upon the part of certain Japanese producers to cooperate
with some American companies in the joint production of pictures in
Japan. If such a scheme materializes, it will provide excellent oppor-
tunity for the Japanese technicians to learn their lessons and acquire
new experiences. Such stimulation will be so great that it may revo-
lutionize the entire production system. At any rate, the Japanese
motion picture must develop to a higher level, and it may not be so
long before Japan will also be contributing to the other peoples of the
world worthy and varied entertainments of the Orient through the
medium of the motion picture.
DISCUSSION
MR. E. RICHARDSON: Mr. Osawa, your people are so wonderfully successful
with the brush and have such natural technic in artistic lines, I wondered whether
in your country they had produced cartoons of your people?
MR. OSAWA: Yes; about three or four companies are now trying to make
Japanese cartoons, and some are getting a little bit better. But although they
are very successful in drawing pictures, etc., the American system is not as well
worked out as in the studios, and as to the music — we haven't very good orches-
tras. But I think the young boys are working very hard on that, and in a couple
of years we may turn out some cartoons.
(A very interesting Japanese film was projected, showing a number of motion
picture studios engaged in production and some of their most celebrated artists in
action; also a number of the most prominent motion picture theaters.)
THE MOTION PICTURE INDUSTRY IN INDIA*
G. D. LAL**
Summary. — A description of the status of motion picture production, distribution,
and exhibition in India, mainly from a commercial point of view, but with brief
reference to some of the technical problems.
Nearly five years ago the first "all talking and singing picture"
was produced and exhibited in India. As sound was then a novelty,
it took the country by storm. Business conditions generally were
far from satisfactory, and so, finding money in the talking pictures,
everybody rushed into the business. Within a year about twenty
producers had entered the field; and by the end of the second year
the number of producers had increased to about thirty-four.
Unfortunately, the technical educational system in India is sadly
lacking. Contacts with the rapidly progressing countries of the
West, especially America, have been, and are yet, very poor. India
has not been closely in touch with western scientific developments.
Thus, when the motion picture "gold rush" started, a number of
adventurous silent producers, theatrical people, and others began
hastily to look for recording outfits. Due to the fact that sound was
new and insufficient technical information was available, and being
ignorant of the complications thereof and having only limited
finances at their disposal, nearly all the adventurers fell an easy prey
to the "bootleg" equipment manufacturers.
To date, there are approximately ninety producers in India oper-
ating completely under Indian capital and management. There are
about thirty sound studios, which, besides producing their own inde-
pendent pictures, rent their studios and equipments on a footage
basis to the other producing companies. The chief centers of ac-
tivity are Bombay and Calcutta.
Unacquainted with the technic of sound, the Indian writers were
incapable of planning or writing their stories successfully. Directors,
* Presented at the Spring, 1935, Meeting at Hollywood, Calif.
** Delhi, India.
248
MOTION PICTURES IN INDIA 249
actors, and the other technical hands were, and still are, recruited
from the silent producers and the theatrical stage. The effect has
been to produce pictures that are jumpy, lacking in continuity, and
too theatrical.
The sound engineers have come mostly from the ranks of radio en-
thusiasts or college graduates whose training has been largely of an
academic nature. As a result of their unfamiliarity with the equip-
ment with which they had to work, and not being well informed on
the principles of recording and its limitations and complications, the
sound quality has consistently been very poor. In numbers of cases
the quality has been worse than that afforded by some of the midget
radio receivers, and poor laboratory work has contributed consider-
ably to its insufficiency. Although some of the studios do boast of
possessing an up-to-date laboratory, they have not yet been able to
maintain a strict check on photographic density. This, of course, is
due to the lack of information not only as to how to operate the equip-
ment properly, but as to the entire processing technic. Even though
some studios have managed to improve the sound quality in the film,
it has been ruined by the projectionists in the theaters, who are none
other than the good old silent "grinders." Most of them do not
know even the fundamentals of electricity, not to speak of the
principles of sound reproduction.
According to one estimate there are about 600 sound theaters in
India; and according to another, there are somewhat more than 700
all over India. The majority of these are the old silent houses or
theatrical halls, and have not been suitably treated for sound. About
a score or two have been properly treated acoustically. Most of
them contain five to seven hundred seats, and nearly all are equipped
with American-made reproducers. Very recently a reproducer
called "Philisonor," made by Philips of Holland, has come into the
market and has been widely distributed. Sales of this reproducer so
far seem to indicate that it will become the most popular reproducer
in the Indian market. The chief reasons for the small number of
wired houses in India are the lack of electric power circuits, lack of
system in organizations, and the cost of equipment.
Almost all Indian productions are based upon religious, mythologi-
cal, and historical subjects. Two of the most progressive producers
have very recently begun to produce social plays. To produce re-
ligious and mythological pictures effectively, much trick work, play-
backs, rear projection, and other devices are required that have not
250 G. D. LAL [J. S. M. p. E.
yet been attempted. The trick work that has been attempted so
far has been, from the American point of view, very primitive and
ineffective. Only recently a few rear projection outfits have been
bought by some producers, but no pictures are reported to have been
released in which "process shots" have been employed. Two at-
tempts have also been made on animated cartoons, which have been
reported to be jumpy and lacking in humor.
Despite the fact that the languages and dialects of India are very
numerous, the pictures made in Hindustani have commanded a very
large market, the reason being that the majority of the people in the
provinces such as Bengal, Madras, Sind (Karachi), etc., having lan-
guages of their own, yet can understand Hindustani, though their
own languages are not understood outside their provinces. Thus, the
belief that the number of languages and dialects in India militates
against the possibilities of the motion picture field is incorrect. In
proof thereof, it might be interesting to note that pictures produced
at a cost of about 20,000 rupees have yielded as much as 75,000 rupees
and more. The possible receipts can be envisioned if it is borne in
mind that there are only 700 theaters in India; and the educated and
respectable families have not patronized the Indian pictures very
much because they fall far short of their expectations. Another
misunderstanding, referring to the "caste system," should also be
corrected. The so-called "untouchables" attend the same theaters,
travel in the same trains, street-cars, etc., as the "touchables"; no
segregated corners are allotted to them, and they pay the same ad-
mission fees.
There is no flat-rate admission system in India — at least it has not
yet been introduced so far. The usual charges in rupees are equiva-
lent to $3, $2, $1, 50c and 25c. This classification is not based upon
any caste system, but upon the social status of the individual. In
order to improve and build up the Indian motion picture industry
four courses are open: (1) to send bonafide students abroad to study
the various phases of the industry in other countries; (2) to import
foreign technicians to assist in practical training and in organizing
the industry; (3) to purchase standard equipment and seek the in-
formation and training through them; (4) to organize a financially
strong and central organizing body to control the industry.
(1) Quite a number of our young men came to America and other
countries, and invariably began their studies by joining a technical
school. Unfortunately, there is no school that can possibly provide
Mar., 1936] MOTION PICTURES IN INDIA 251
broad and useful practical training in the many phases of this huge
industry; and because the boys did not realize the complications and
breadth of the art, they believed they could become experts by taking
the diplomas of the schools that existed. Most of the boys that came
out have gone in for photography and sound engineering; they ob-
tained their diplomas and returned to India as "Foreign Qualified
Technicians." Some of the boys who understood the situation and
realized that actual practical training in the various studios was
necessary, tried to gain entree to the studios, but found the doors
shut. The result has been that they had to return to India incapable
of being of much help to the industry, although a little wiser in the
ways of the world.
(2) Due to the various misunderstandings between the East and
the West there has been a serious lack of appreciation of the actual
conditions of the East, particularly as regards living conditions. The
purchasing power of a rupee in India is almost the same as that of the
dollar in America; but as the exchange ratio is roughly three rupees
to the dollar, it will be appreciated that to pay the American techni-
cian his American salary in dollars in India becomes prohibitive.
(3) It is most surprising, indeed, that the various manufacturers
of standard equipment in America have not yet taken stock of the
Indian market. Indian import duties and other local tariffs are very
high, amounting in some instances to 30 or 40 per cent. Naturally,
the producers find it difficult to pay the high prices for standard
equipment and to pay the royalties, in addition.
To expect technical information or other training from the major
equipment companies is out of the question unless India is their
customer; and even those Indian firms that have been using some of
the standard equipment and recording channels have not been able
to obtain results because of their inexperience and lack of technical
information. Apparently the outfits are working satisfactorily, as
they (i. e., the manufacturers) "have no complaints" and "have sold
'so many' outfits." But those who have seen, heard, and watched
the results know how satisfactory they have been.
(4) One of the chief reasons why capital was shy and why most of
the public-spirited men kept aloof from the Indian motion picture
industry was the lack of confidence in the technical personnel and
their organizers. Furthermore, there has been a tremendous waste
in production, which was, and still is, due to the inexperience of the
present day directors and technicians, and the absence of really
252 G. D. LAL
clever and responsible men to suggest workable plans and schemes.
What has made the situation worse has been the entrance into the
field of the self-styled "Foreign Qualified Technician" and some un-
desirable hands that have come into the business.
The cost of producing an average length feature, containing about
10 or 11 1000-ft. reels (sometimes as many as 16), is in the neighbor-
hood of 10,000 rupees. Unfortunately, no serious attempt has been
made to collect such data and it is almost impossible to quote definite
figures.
Since the advent of sound, American pictures have been patronized
less than have the English pictures, the simple reason being that the
pictures sent to India were of jazz and underworld life, full of typical
American slang and humor, which nobody outside America can under-
stand or appreciate. But such pictures as Cleopatra, Queen Chris-
tina, and their like are very popular even among the uneducated.
It is certainly very gratifying and creditable that India has made
slow but steady progress in spite of the odds against her. She has
been struggling along, groping in the dark, accomplishing whatever
has been accomplished by trial and error. Only recently an Indian
picture has been accepted for exhibition at the International Arts
Exhibition to be held in Vienna. India has the talent, and has
everything in her favor in the way of story material, locations, work-
men, and so forth. What are lacking are more honest, sincere, and
experienced Indian boys to study the industry abroad and become
the pioneers in organizing the industry. It is hoped that before long
a better understanding and cooperation will be established between
the East and the West which will eventually yield better business to
the American manufacturers and assist in building up our industry.
Thus we shall have not only more friendly business relations, but a
more authentic understanding of the East will be gained. Also, the
producers here in Hollywood will not have to send out expensive ex-
peditions to the East or the Far East, or to Africa, for background
shots which could very safely be entrusted to producers or individuals
in India.
PROBLEMS OF A MOTION PICTURE RESEARCH LIBRARY*
H. G. PERCEY**
Summary. — The organization and equipment of the research department at
Paramount Studios are described. The difference in the problems of research on
historical and modern photoplays is explained, with specific examples from current
pictures.
In the days when Jesse Lasky and Cecil B. DeMille operated a
little motion picture studio on Vine Street in Hollywood, there was
employed as a reader in the Story Department an actress who had
"trod the boards" from Minnesota to Louisiana and from New York
to California. Because of her wide experience and excellent memory,
the production staff formed the habit of asking her what the butler
had worn in this play, or whether the desk in that one was Governor
Winthrop, or Mission. One day, as the company flourished, they
decided to have their stories reviewed in New York, and this actress,
Elizabeth McGaffey, persuaded them to give her a dictionary, the
National Geographic Magazine, and a public library card, and allow
her to start a research department. This eventful happening took
place in 1914.
It grew slowly at first, with an occasional magazine added: the
London News, because of the War; the Architectural Record, for the
Art Department; and a few books for each picture. In fact, for many
years the chief growth of the department was in connection with
important pictures. No additions to the department have excelled
the splendid architectural material on Spain purchased for Spanish
Dancer. For Ten Commandments were purchased the La Sainte
Bible with the Tissot illustrations, the Encyclopaedia of Religion and
Ethics, and many commentaries on the Bible; for Old Ironsides, fine
boat books ; while for The Patriot, some rare Russian historical mate-
rial was added, including the two-volume set published to commemo-
rate the coronation of Tsar Nicholas II.
* Presented at the Spring, 1935, Meeting at Hollywood, Calif.
** Paramount Productions, Inc., Hollywood, Calif.
253
254 H. G. PERCEY [j. s. M. P. E
Today, there are 8100 books and bound magazines, and a picture
file greater than that of the Los Angeles Public Library. The collec
tion, though still built ostensibly around productions, has been aug-
mented by a great many standard reference sets of encyclopedias, the
Yale University Pageant of America, Peoples of All Nations, Countries
of the World, Lands and Peoples, Manners and Customs of Mankind
History of the Nations, and the Smithsonian Institution Scientific
Series. The library subscribes also for the more important magazine
indexes, thus making available for use a large stock of bound and
current periodicals, including Asia, Architectural Forum, Arts ana
Decoration, House and Garden, Travel, many foreign weeklies, anc
various news magazines.
Although the work of the department was at first restricted tc
little more than finding out what had been used for the stage play,
or what the sheriff's badge of the eighteen-eighties was like for a
"western," gradually not only the production units, but all the de-
partments, learned to depend upon research to help solve their prob-
lems. Regardless of our over-zealous publicity departments' stories,
the librarians have never claimed infallibility, nor deserved it. Given
enough time, and enough money, they can usually find satisfactory
material ; but when a director sends in an order from a set, with the
breathless messenger hanging over our shoulders while we try to find
a picture of a wedding ring used in Spain in the seventeenth century,
the battle is lost. No other department in the studio is used by so
many persons, and for so many purposes. Bing Crosby wishes to
pick out the moustache he will wear in Mississippi. The Art Director
wants to see the interior of an old English stable for Peter Ibbetson;
for the latter picture the Costume Designer must to see the
hat worn by a little boy with an Eton suit in 1819. The Censorship
Department has been warned that the life of a character in a forth-
coming picture resembles that of some noted diplomat, so biographical
material must be found. The interior view of a church for slaves is
wanted by King Vidor for So Red the Rose. The Drapery Department
needs yacht flags and insignia for The Big Broadcast of 1935. How to
address an informal note to an English countess is the problem of the
Foreign Department, while the Legal Department wishes to check
upon a play bearing a title similar to one recently purchased by the
company. A letter received by the Fan Mail Department asks the
nationality of the adventuress in Lives of a Bengal Lancer; and some
one else wishes the name of the musical instrument used to charm
Mar., 1936] PROBLEMS OF A MOTION PICTURE LIBRARY 255
the snake. The unit business manager wants the name of a Turkish
technical advisor for The Last Outpost. A real spider spinning a
real web is wanted by the Special Effects Department ; and an engi-
neer from the Sound Department asks whether it is true that a
waterspout can be broken by shooting a cannon into it.
Our greatest problems, and the most interesting, arise in making
historical pictures. An excellent example is Ttie Crusades. The
preliminary work was done on it a whole year ago, when histories of
the Third Crusade, and biographies of Richard the Lion Hearted were
located. In July, Harold Lamb, whose scholarly but readable books
upon the subject have made him an authority, was assigned to write
an original story. Our work with him proved to be of great length,
but fascinating, relating to the costumes of kings and queens, lords
and ladies, minstrels and priests; army life, military tactics, and
battle cries; the manner of saluting an officer, and paying homage
to a king; marriage customs of the twelfth century in France,
and religious customs among the Saracens. How much of Windsor
Castle was built at that time, and how was it furnished? Not only
Mr. Lamb, but, in his wake, art director, set dresser, sketch artists,
and technicians, all plied us with questions. One point alone may
serve to illustrate what pains are taken to be exactly correct,
and yet how difficult it often is to find information upon what seems
to be rather simple. There is a scene in the script in which Richard
visits the smithy to see how his new sword is progressing, and himself
strikes a few blows with the hammer. While he is thus engaged, a
messenger summons him back to the castle, to greet Philip Augustus
of France, an unexpected guest. The same evening the smith de-
livers the finished sword. Could a sword be tempered, polished, and
finished so quickly? First we searched the material on arms and
armor; then the books on the arts and crafts of the Middle Ages,
narratives of the time, and even historical novels and children's
stories. In the magazine indexes we found countless articles on the
history and manufacture of swords, but none that answered the ques-
tion. We tried the Huntington Library, and the University libraries;
finally, even the Library of Congress, but their great resources con-
tained no such data. Through an army officer, we found the name of
the firm that had made the last issue of cavalry sabers, but even they
could not tell us how long it had taken them, let alone how long it
might have taken an armorer of the twelfth century. The Chief of
Ordnance sent us the government specifications for swords, which
256 H. G. PERCEY [j. s. M. p. E.
proved very amusing to the DeMille unit, but of no help. Just as we
had about given up hope, two articles appeared in magazines regard-
ing the work of Kenneth Lynch, a metal craftsman, with a forge in
Long Island City. A letter to him brought the information that he
had made some of the swords for The Crusades, and that he believed
that at that time it would have taken three men one day's work to
make a sword.
The costume problem is a grave one, and is still quite unrecog-
nized by many directors. We have all the great authorities, including
Racinet, Planche, Hottenroth, Rosenberg, and Giafferri; uniform
regulations, books on coiffures, fashion magazines, and countless
others; but the costume must please not only the designer but the
director and the star. The designer may not want the Spanish cos-
tume of the province in which the story is written, but one worn in
Argentina, or depicted by Sargent in El Jaleo. The director may
know that the Alaskan Indians wear something closely resembling
a "Mother-Hubbard," but one can not blame him for not putting such
an outfit upon a supposedly languorous lady. A masculine star
would not wear knee breeches in a Revolutionary War picture, be-
cause he thought them unbecoming.
Competent technical advisors are indispensable in connection with
pictures, the locale of which is supposed to be in a foreign country or
which is concerned with some special subject, such as the army or
navy, aviation or engineering. Occasionally, one will misrepresent his
capabilities, but there are so many nationalities represented on the
payroll of any studio that it is not difficult to find such information.
There are countless questions of customs and procedure that are
not answered in books; infinite details of costume, which make all
the difference between right and wrong to the natives of a country,
but would never be noticed by Americans. For every good technical
person employed, our knowledge of the country is enriched, but un-
fortunately, we receive all the criticisms of the incompetent ones.
On the average modern American picture, the work is seldom ex-
haustive. For Stolen Harmony, we sent for city or state police uni-
forms and equipment from four states, only to find there was hardly
a glimpse of them left when the picture was finished. Prison pictures
worry us a little, because with the new prison reforms prevalent in
so many of the states, we do not always find the stripes and chains
that are usually associated with the punishment of criminals.
Mar., 1936 J PROBLEMS OF A MOTION PICTURE LIBRARY 257
A part of the work that we find particularly enjoyable is that done
with some of the musical composers. For instance, before Ralph
Rainger began composing the music for Rose of the Rancho he spent
hours looking at pictures and reading books upon the customs of
early California — life on the big ranches, the fiestas, the dances —
everything but the music.
There is no end to the work that can be done, nor to the material
that can be used in a research department. We once made a survey
of the employees to find out where we could get specialized informa-
tion quickly. The employees have been particularly valuable in
connection with European War stories, because practically every
branch of foreign service is represented, and also for small amounts of
translation that are often needed quickly, such as a German sign in
a train, or a Spanish letter. None of the research departments has
the equipment to do scientific research, but that is a goal toward
which we can work.
There is a nation-wide movement, now well organized, that is
going to have a decided effect upon motion pictures, and by the very
nature of it, upon the growth of research departments in the industry
—Motion Picture Appreciation — which is being studied in the public
schools in connection with the English classes. When we realize
that there are no fewer than thirty million children and adolescents in
the schools of the United States, it must be evident that teaching them
not only discrimination but criticism as well, is bound to influence a
number of factors that today many persons feel are of little conse-
quence. One of the English teachers in a Junior High School told
us that surveys made a year ago and again this spring had shown a
surprisingly great increase in the attendance at recommended pic-
tures. The Women's Clubs, the Parent-Teachers Associations, the
Theater Managers, the Public Libraries, are all doing their best to
help. Pamphlets are issued on a few of the specially recommended
films such as David Copperfield, one hundred and twenty-four thou-
sand of which are being circulated. The Public Libraries give out
book-marks referring to these and some of the historical pictures,
suggesting other books on the same or similar subjects, readable
histories, biographies, and novels. All this leads to an intelligent
demand for better entertainment, more accurately presented; and
perhaps the research departments will soon come into their own.
258 H. G. PERCEY
DISCUSSION
MR. CRABTREE: Is your equipment restricted to books, or do you have file
records of photographs, clippings, etc? Also, do you have a directory of persons
in Hollywood who can tell you what is worn in France or Ireland or other coun-
tries? It would seem that such a person would be able to put you right about
costumes in much shorter time than by reading a book.
Miss PERCEY : That is true, and we do try to get them ; but we must investi-
gate them very carefully, because very often they have not been abroad for a
long time — sometimes years — and when they go to the wardrobe department to
pick out a policeman's uniform, for example, the one they pick out is hopelessly
out of date.
Yes, we have a directory of research experts. But, as in everything else, it is
always something that we do not have that is asked of us. We have also a very
large clipping and photograph file. We have practically no scientific books.
The library has been built around the motion pictures we have made, and not
around the future needs of the staff or the studio. In time to come, perhaps,
we shall have at least the important scientific encyclopedias and similar material,
which should be owned by the studio and not by individuals in the sound or other
departments.
I was very much interested in the films taken with polarized light, because one
of our difficulties is that of supplying photographs to be used in pictures as back-
ings outside windows. When filming a scene in France, for instance, a photo-
graph typifying French scenery may be required, and our great trouble is that
often we have no such photographs, but have, instead, very good rotogravure
prints. With the polarizing filters, it will be possible to enlarge the prints satis-
factorily, I believe.
MR. CRABTREE: Yes, we get as good reproductions from mat prints as
from glossy prints.
Miss PERCEY: That is very interesting. It will help to solve some of our
problems.
PRESIDENT TASKER: That is another example of how the Society mutually
assists the various persons in the industry.
MR. CRABTREE: It supports Professor Morkovin's statement that the more
each man knows of the other man's problems, the more valuable he is to the
industry. A specialist these days must be a jack of all trades, with an extra
knowledge of his particular subject. Miss Percey, how many persons are em-
ployed in your department?
Miss PERCEY: We have only five in the Research Library at Paramount
Studio. One of our exchange men came to the studio not long ago and looked
around almost with disgust. Having read the accounts of the enormous research
staff that Mr. DeMille used on Cleopatra and The Crusades, he was horrified when
he saw my rather limited library, and only five of us. He said, "I thought you
had at least 300 persons employed."
THE HISTORICAL MOTION PICTURE EXHIBIT
AT THE LOS ANGELES MUSEUM*
E. THEISEN **
Summary. — The development of the historical motion picture exhibit at the Los
Angeles Museum sponsored by the Society is described, from 1930 when the first
gallery was opened. The various contributions of the pioneers represented in the
exhibit are discussed, and a description of the various accessions and the policies of
the Museum in displaying these collections is given.
The historical exhibit of motion picture relics at the Los Angeles
Museum is being brought together so that the relics may not become
scattered or lost. The records and apparatus of many of the arts,
and even many of the traditions incidental to their development have
been lost because of a lack of interest in preserving the material or
putting it into suitable and safe depositories. Even now, scarcely
more than forty years since the motion picture began, many of the
records and much of the mechanical paraphernalia have been lost.
However, the Society of Motion Picture Engineers and the Los An-
geles Museum, in collaboration, have sponsored the activity of pre-
serving as many relics and memorabilia of the motion picture as
possible.
Because many of the motion picture pioneers did not realize the
importance of their researches, they did not preserve their devices in-
tact, but, instead, removed sprockets, gears, or parts of the devices
for use in further experimentation, with the result that the original
equipment was gradually dismantled. Time after time, in the search
for the original equipment, such was found to be the case. Fires,
the death of the pioneer, and lack of funds are other reasons for the
destruction and scattering of the records.
Realizing all this, the idea of a motion picture museum was crystal-
* Presented at the Spring, 1935, Meeting at Hollywood, Calif,
** Los Angeles Museum, Los Angeles, Calif.
259
260 E. THEISEN [j. s. M. p. E.
lized. The Motion Picture Division of the Los Angeles Museum was
organized in January, 1930, with Earl Theisen Honorary Curator.
On December 10, 1931, the Board of Governors of the Society of Mo-
tion Picture Engineers appointed a Committee known as the Museum
Committee, whose duty it was to aid in bringing together the relics
of the motion picture. The Los Angeles Museum was chosen as a de-
pository.
The initial exhibit in the Museum at that time was a collection of
approximately 1200 specimens of film, representing the entire history
of the motion picture. The collection included actual clippings
from original films of pioneers and from notable photoplays from year
FIG. 1. S. M. P. E. motion picture exhibit, Los Angeles Museum.
to year, color, sound, and the various processes, each being repre-
sented by separate specimens bound between glass plates for preser-
vation, and accompanying each specimen was a historical notation.
In the collection, which is still on display, may be seen raw stock
made by Eastman in 1890, and motion pictures made by W. K. L.
Dickson for Edison in 1889. There are numerous examples of the
earliest films to be projected upon screens, including those of Wood-
ville Latham, the Lumiere Brothers, the Biograph, and others. Speci-
mens of hand-colored motion pictures made in 1898 may also be
seen. There are also specimens of stop-motion, and motion pictures
by miniatures, of the same period.
There is one specimen on display that corresponds to the main title
of current pictures. It is a film in which are two frames of title bear-
Mar., l«Mi| HISTORICAL MOTION PICTURE EXHIBIT 1>()1
ing the statement, "Copyrighted by T. A. Edison, 1897." It was
inserted five feet from the start of the film so as not to be torn away
as a result of the practice at that time of removing the short sections
of the film that were damaged by the starting of the projector. In
the collection are also specimens of such noted pictures as The Great
'I' rain Robbery, The Birth of a Nation, and others. There are samples
of sound-films made by Ernst Ruhmer as early as 1904, and animated
cartoons made by J. Stewart Blackton as early as 1900.
The specimens are displayed by means of backlighting in an open-
air case arrangement, so that the film specimens will not be heated
above 70 degrees. This collection of motion picture film specimens
was first begun by Earl Theisen in 1924, and includes samples ob-
tained from all over the world.
Since 1930, when the Motion Picture Museum idea was crystal-
lized, there has been constant activity in assembling the available
relics. The Los Angeles Museum has furnished assistance and dis-
play facilities, while the sponsorship of the Society of Motion Picture
Engineers, under the guidance of the Historical and Museum Com-
mittee, has aided considerably in bringing together the material.
Many notable private collections have been deposited with the Los
Angeles Museum, and many records of the motion picture pioneers
are represented. On display may be seen a model of "The Black
Maria," the first Edison studio. This model was made from specifi-
cations furnished by W. K. L. Dickson, who made the original studio
for Edison in the early 1890's. Besides this model there are other
models showing a present-day sound stage with all its appurtenances.
There is also a model showing how a glass matte process "shot" is
photographed. Plans have been promulgated for adding to the
miniature models in this display as and when they can be made.
Particular attention is being given toward bringing together the
mechanical equipment. Projectors and cameras made by a number
of pioneers have already been acquired, and have been treated to pre-
vent corrosion and destruction before placing on display. This
equipment, after being received at the Museum, is carefully cleaned,
the rust is removed, and it is so treated as to prevent the formation of
new rust.
Many archives have also been gathered both for preservation and
display. The catalogs issued by the Biograph Company showing
photographs from the first Biograph films have been acquired
from the collection of George E. Van Guysling. Mr. Van Guysling,
262 E. THEISEN [j. S. M. p E.
who was Manager of the Biograph Company during the years 1904
to 1907, saved many of the records of the Biograph Company. For
the most part these have been placed with the Los Angeles Museum;
some have been put into display cases, while the other material has
been placed in the Museum storeroom for safe-keeping. A store-
room of about 3000 square feet has been set aside for this purpose.
Mr. J. Stuart Blackton has made available material from the old
Vitagraph Company. In the Blackton collection may be seen, among
other things, the drawings from which was made the Vitagraph trade-
mark. Mr. Blackton also supplied a Biograph mutoscope "peep
show," of 1908. In this mutoscope may be seen a complete picture
showing the members of the Patents Company. One-half of the men
shown in the picture have since died. The motion picture is not
FIG. 2. Old slide of about 1831-32, on display in the S. M. P. E. exhibit.
Only a small portion could be projected at a time. The slide was painted
in panorama, so that motion of the train would be simulated as the slide
was passed through the lantern. Candles were used in the magic lantern
for illumination.
upon film, but upon the mutoscope cards which flipped past the line
of vision and thus integrated the progressive motion of the successive
photographs upon the cards.
Other pioneers have supplied photographs, hand-bills, and other
memorabilia from the Kalem, Lubin, Essanay, Selig, and, in fact, all
the more widely known early motion picture companies. Much of
this material is in the form of hand-bills, as in the case of a collection
of Edison programs during the period of 1909 to 1911 furnished by
Herbert Prior, an Edison leading man at that time. These hand-bills
bear descriptions of the pictures, photographs, and, in later hand-
bills, listings of the casts.
Records on display at the Museum indicate that the motion pic-
ture players first began to receive publicity in 1910. A copy of the
Sunday Post Dispatch of St. Louis carried a feature article on May 20,
1910, announcing for the first time "that the IMP Girl is really Flor-
ence Lawrence," This, according to available records, was the
Mar., 1936] HISTORICAL MOTION PICTURE EXHIBIT 263
publicity given to a motion picture player, and was brought about
through the enterprise of Carl Laemmle, for whom Florence Lawrence
was working at the time.
The Motion Picture Story Magazine, which was first published in
February, 1911, by J. Stuart Blackton as the Patent Company's
publication, carried stories about the players. One of the early pic-
tures in which Edison gave credit to a cast was a 700-ft. picture en-
titled The International Heart-Breaker, released on December 11, 1911.
Examples of all this "star" publicity may be seen on display in the
Museum exhibit.
The Museum also has on display, from the George E. Van Guysling
collection, hand-bills from motion pictures made in Los Angeles in
1906. One hand-bill issued by the Biograph Company from their
Los Angeles office, 2623 Pico Street, dated June 17, 1906, announces
a picture entitled A Daring Hold- Up in Southern California. An
earlier picture had been made on June 10, 1906. There is also on
display an announcement from the Billboard Magazine of that time,
of the opening at Los Angeles of a branch of the American Biograph
Co. As indicated by the Los Angeles City Directory, the Biograph
Company remained in Los Angeles continually from that date until
the dissolution of the company. There is a popular tradition that
the first motion pictures were made in Los Angeles by Colonel W. N.
Selig in 1908. David Horsley is credited with making the first pic-
tures in Hollywood in October, 1911.
These hand-bills, along with suitable photographs, are displayed
in swinging frames permitting the visitors to the museum to study
the exhibit closely. Also in the swinging frames are many patent
papers and other documents. Upon the walls are framed and auto-
graphed pictures of many of the motion picture pioneers, including
Edison, Eastman, and others. Framed nickelodeon posters hang
upon the wall.
Upon display in the gallery is an attempt to show how the idea
of motion pictures began more than 250 centuries ago and evolved up
to the present time. A photograph is shown, supplied by Will Day
of London, of a boar having two distinct sets of legs, the original
drawing of which, upon the wall of a cave at Altmira, Spain, dates
back to approximately 25,000 B.C. The drawing was evidently an
attempt by the artists of that time to represent motion pictorially.
Preserved in the Museum files are records of many attempts to pro-
duce motion pictures before photography was available, an example of
264 E. THEISEN
which was the magic lantern. On display are magic lanterns ex-
ploying either candles or kerosene, and many beautifully hand-
painted slides, arranged in narrative sequence with the idea of telling
a story. For instance, the travel lecture, Through the Holy Land,
depicts in succession the various interesting sights of the Holy Land,
intended to be accompanied by suitable explanatory discussion. As
an example of the "story slides," there is The Orphan's Dream, in
which is depicted in a series of three slides the story of the little or-
phan going to Heaven and seeing the angels. The first slide, known
as the "foundation slide," showed the orphan asleep upon a couch; the
second slide was superimposed in the upper right-hand corner and
gradually slid into view upon the screen, thus introducing the idea of
the angels appearing to the orphan.
Besides the historical material upon display, material has been de-
signed to explain the current motion picture processes, such as the
making of an animated cartoon, the coloring of motion pictures, the
lighting technics, etc. In these displays, wherever possible, actual
examples of the successive steps of the processes are shown, along
with suitable labels.
The Historical and Museum Committee and the Los Angeles Mu-
seum are particularly interested in preserving the history of the mo-
tion picture as it unfolds. With this purpose, various companies
and leaders of the cinema are encouraged to send literature, para-
phernalia, and other items that portray evolutionary progress. A
number of magazines send complimentary subscriptions so that a com-
plete file of current events is preserved.
At this time it is fitting that a plea be made for further acces-
sions and for the cooperation of those who may have in their posses-
sion any historical motion picture material. Persons having such
material owe posterity a duty. Motion picture relics must be pre-
served, and since there is little commerical value attached to the
relics, it follows that this material should be deposited with the Mo-
tion Picture Museum. Credit is always given to the donors upon labels
describing the exhibits. ,In certain instances where it is inadvisable
to make the material an outright gift to the Museum, recall privileges
may be granted.
THE MOTION PICTURE COLLECTION AT
THE NATIONAL MUSEUM*
A. J. OLMSTEAD**
Summary. — The Smithsonian Institution was created in 1846 by act of Congress
according to the terms of the will of James Smithson, of England, who bequeathed
his property to the U. S. Government for the purpose of founding at Washington an
establishment for increasing and diffusing knowledge among men, and to be known
as the Smithsonian Institution. The Section of Photography is a part of the Divi-
sion of Graphic Arts. It constitutes in its exhibits a history of photography, both
still and motion, as represented by 12,180 specimens. The present paper describes
some of these exhibits in relation to their historical aspects.
Recently I was advised that the Board of Governors of the Society
had sanctioned the Smithsonian Institution as a depository of motion
picture material, thus authorizing in the East a depository for the
exhibition and display of such equipment. Museums grow slowly
and exhibit and care for what has passed into history. We speak of
material over 50 years old as being of museum age, under which rule
motion picture apparatus is just approaching maturity, as I believe
the beginnings of the motion picture industry were some 40 years ago.
However, early machines, methods, and processes are rapidly passing,
and no time should be wasted in collecting the material and placing
it where it will be cared for and be safe. Of all museums, national,
state, or city, the national is on a most enduring foundation. The
section of photography, covering both still and motion pictures, is
some sixty years old; and here a tribute should be paid to its founder,
Thomas W. Smillie, who had the wisdom to make the beginning and
whose chief interest it was during the forty -eight years in which he
served the Institution.
It is my purpose to review briefly the motion picture material now
in the collection, and to invite you to inspect it. Toys embodying
the principle of persistence of vision as a factor in creating an illusion
of motion date back to 1830. We have a combination toy zoetrope
* Presented at the Fall, 1935, Meeting at Washington, D. C.
"* Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C.
265
266 A. J. OLMSTEAD [J. S. M. p. E,
dated 1876, from the U. S. Patent Office, the inventor of which states
that it can be used as a paper collar-box after the termination of its
period of usefulness as a toy. Other zoetropes or "Whirligigs of
Life" are shown, some employing mirrors and some lenses in their
construction. The periphantoscope whirls before a mirror, thus
differing in construction from the zoetropes in that the reflection is
viewed through slotted openings, a whole library of carefully drawn
disks being provided to afford a variety of entertainment. The
phantoscope provides a semblance of motion by allowing a series of
prints bound tightly together at one edge to flip successively under
the thumb at the opposite edge. These are some of the devices of the
premovie days, mainly for the purpose of providing amusement for
children and adults.
The Eadweard Muy bridge collection is very complete. Muy bridge
began his historic experiments in 1872 in an effort to settle a dispute
as to whether a trotting horse had all four feet off the ground at any
part of its stride. His work and his photographs of the horse, taken
with twenty-four cameras, form a historic episode in the art, and
proved this to be true. Following his work in California, Muybridge
was given a grant of forty thousand dollars by the University of
Pennsylvania to carry further his study of human and animal motion,
the culmination of which work embodied the publication of some
eight hundred photogravure plates of a wide variety of subjects, for
which he received world-wide recognition. The work was all done
with dry plates, exposed serially in a battery of cameras — not a single
camera and single point of view, as we now take motion pictures.
The zoopraxi scope was Muybridge's instrument for projecting the
pictures.
In 1887 Wallace Gould Levison, a member of the Brooklyn Acad-
emy of Science, constructed a camera, included in the collection of the
Smithsonian, that would expose twelve plates in less than a second.
These plates were placed upon the periphery of a drum and exposed
by an electrically operated shutter. This camera recorded motion
from one point of view, thus differing in principle and practice from
Muybridge's multiple-camera method.
Film came upon the market about 1888, and was a big aid in the
solution of the movie camera and projector problems. Of Edison's
material the most important in the collection is a projection kineto-
scope, the lamp house of which contains a lime light: electricity was
not then so available as now. There are also two cameras and a
Mar., 1936] NATIONAL MUSEUM COLLECTION 267
light-testing machine accredited to Edison ; and a synchronizer, dated
1908, in which an effort was made to synchronize an Edison talking
machine with a motion picture film. The machine was operated by
a battery, and to keep the picture and speech together, the operator
kept the green light burning, the red being an indication of "out of
time." It has been said that with the present means of sound repro-
duction and amplication, this machine would give excellent results
with old film and records. The great difficulty at the time was
not that of keeping the sound and picture together, but that the
sound was weak and the needle scratched badly.
One of the first projectors to be used commercially, the eidoloscope,
was invented by Woodville Latham, and was used in April, 1895, to
give public exhibitions in New York, N. Y. It was probably the
third machine of its kind that was constructed, and was used by Le-
Roy Latham, a son of Woodville Latham, to give exhibitions at Nor-
folk, Newport News, and Richmond. A later machine, patented in
1902, maintained the loop and included an intermittent movement
with an improved shutter. The instrument stands in a case in the
Museum by itself, and was shown at the sesquicentennial exposition
at Philadelphia.
In connection with the eidoloscope I well remember the first visit
of Eugene A. Lauste to the motion picture exhibit. He greeted this
machine with affection and much feeling, saying that he did not know
that one existed, and that he had helped to build the machine as well
as design it.
The Jenkins material at present fills one section of a wall case.
Fifteen years ago a small part of this collection formed the beginning
of the Museum's exhibit of motion picture apparatus. The Muy-
bridge material was added later.
The Jenkins exhibit is most complete : it includes equipment dating
from Jenkins' experiments and processes to the final aerial map-
ping camera, one of his last jobs. The list is a long one and I shall
only mention the items in a general way: early motion picture
cameras and projectors; later equipment for radio transmission of
photographs; television and motion picture equipment; high-speed
motion picture cameras for analysis of motion ; apparatus for trans-
mitting weather maps by radio to ships at sea; and, finally, the aerial
mapping camera already mentioned.
Edward Amet, of Waukegan, 111., did some early work on projec-
tion. We have three of his models: (7) a demonstration model to
268 A. J. OLMSTEAD [j. s. M. P. E.
prove that a motion picture could be taken and projected; (2) one
made in 1894-95, of which some 500 were made and sold; (3) one
made for the market in 1900, employing a claw.
Of the work of Marvin and Casler we have three cameras and one
projector. The machines are large and cumbersome; the camera
was driven by a 2-hp. motor, and the film was 23/4 inches wide, with-
out perforations. It was exposed at the rate of forty a second. The
camera that they constructed worked, and did not infringe existing
patents. The design was largely due to the genius of Casler. The
prints were first shown in a peep-hole machine known as the muto-
scope, and later positives were projected with a machine known as
the bio graph. The work of these two men resulted in the formation
in 1896, of the great Biograph Company that made motion picture
history for the next 20 years, invading England and France and con-
structing studios and laboratories.
Standing at the corner of the exhibit, and in actual operation, we
have one of the mutoscopes mentioned above, which was shown by
the U. S. Post Office Department at the St. Louis Exposition in 1904.
Eberhardt Schneider is represented by two early printers, three
perforators, four film polishers and rewinds, five projector heads and
five cameras, all of his invention and manufacture.
Most important and of great interest in this collection is a frame of
film specimens dating from 1895.
Recently there have been acquired from the Bell Telephone Labo-
ratories a collection of fifty-nine specimens of the early work of
Eugene A. Lauste, of whose contributions to the modern sound picture
art too much can not be said. Lauste's work began in the eighties :
in 1889 he was with Edison, and later with Woodville Latham (1894),
designing and building the eidoloscope, used for public performances
in 1895. He was first to record sound and scene upon the same film,
his English patent being dated August, 1906. Lacking vacuum tube
amplification, he was unable to operate his loud speakers with satis-
factory volume. His work in recording sound was far in advance of
the science of reproduction.
To mention a few of the more important models: 1908-9, sound
reproducer; 1910-11, camera and projector for sound and scene;
1911-12, sound recorder; 1912-13, sound and scene projector.
Added to this material later was a most valuable collection of photo-
graphs and manuscripts, carefully arranged by Mr. Lauste over a
period of years, descriptive of his work and that of many of his con-
Mar., 1936] NATIONAL MUSEUM COLLECTION 269
temporaries in the early days of motion picture development. Mr.
Lauste had the pleasure of seeing his exhibit arranged upon the
shelves of the Smithsonian a few short weeks before his death on
June 26, 1935.
Last, but not least, in October, 1923, this Society— the Society of
Motion Picture Engineers — presented the Institution with a histori-
cal collection, consisting of some 15 specimens of film strips and
screen-plates of which I shall mention a few : McDonough-Joly screen-
plate ; Fenske Aurora screen-plate ; Thames plates ; Kelley line-screen ;
Krayn screen; Omnicolor plate; Ives chromoscope slides; and Bio-
graph, Brewster, Prizma, and Technicolor film strips.
In preparing this paper I have discovered the list of the historical
motion picture material now in the collection is a sizable one, and, in
conclusion, will as a summary mention the names of some the in-
ventors whose work is now represented : Muybridge, Levison, Edison,
Latham, Jenkins, Amet, Marvin and Casler, Schneider, and Lauste —
all names that appear large in motion picture history.
THE INTERRELATION OF TECHNICAL AND DRAMATIC
DEVICES OF MOTION PICTURES*
B. V. MORKOVIN**
Summary. — The dramatic technic of motion pictures is determined by the cinema
mechanics and by the way the actual world is shaped through the medium of lens and
microphone. The technician must be guided in his work by an understanding of the
dramatic purposes and meanings of the devices used and by a knowledge of the fun-
damentals of cinematic dramaturgy. Some of the requisites for attaining a
harmonious blend of all the cinematic powers and possibilities, and the differences
between mere stage productions and motion picture productions are pointed out.
Dramatic art, whether it be literary, stage, or screen drama, works
upon the emotions of the readers and audiences by twofold processes,
opposed to each other, yet harmoniously balanced :
One takes them away from the vexations of their actual life into
the realm of make-believe. It fascinates by imaginary transformation
of life, and transports by the spark of unreality.
The other process makes believable the impossible and the strange.
By an illusion of life-likeness it stirs the interest, arouses sympathetic
emotions, and plays upon the keyboard of the past experience of the
readers and spectators. Drama gives the excitement and thrill of
first-hand experience without making the reader or spectator pay
the price for his experience.
The form of drama most expressive in its means, most adequate
for conveying the complex experience of our dynamic age, is the
cinematic drama, the motion picture. Unprecedented in history by
any other form of artistic expression, cinematic means, since their
inception a little more than half a century ago, have been continuously
and cumulatively enriched by the work of national and international
geniuses of science and technic. The fields directly or indirectly
related to the cinema have been enhancing the powers of cinematic
expression : sound, light, electricity, chemistry, all branches of photo-
graphy, radio, television, etc. This scientific and technical contribu-
TECHNICAL AND DRAMATIC DEVICES 271
tion keeps perfecting the cinematic tools and their ability to capture
and reproduce human experience with precision, sensitiveness, and
vigor. At the same time, the cinema has benefited from the growing
richness and finesse of all the arts that constitute its ingredients and
contributors: literature, legitimate theater stagecraft, painting,
sculpture, architecture, music, and ballet.
Not unlike modern witchcraft, the cinema creates in the mind of
the spectator an illusion of living through the life experiences of char-
acters. It achieves this by means of sympathy with or for characters
and their vicissitudes, and by empathy, or unconscious repetition in
the spectator's muscles and body of the movements and actions of
characters.
In order to produce this hypnotic illusion, cinema has mastered its
material and tools and made them malleable, and has learned to
organize its material into a variety of stimuli working upon the hu-
man nerves of eyes and ears and indirectly upon the nerves of the
other senses. The material for the visual stimuli is provided by the
actors, their bodies, feelings, and thoughts; by the costumes, make-up,
furniture, settings, and other props of all epochs and descriptions;
by composition of lines and masses, clarified and reenforced by camera
angles and distances, and by distribution of light and shadows: the
material for aural stimuli is provided by sounds, noises, dialog, and
music. All these stimuli are organized emotionally into peculiar,
dramatic patterns. The cinematic stimuli, as the Greek KIV^OL
indicates, work essentially by means of movements, large and small,
from the mere drooping of the eyelids to spectacular battles and
chases and the play of emotions behind them as the motivating forces.
The dramatic expressiveness and powers of the cinema are increased
by the technical progress, the perfection of technical equipment,
camera, lighting, optical printer, processes, sound equipment, color,
etc.
The scenario writer and the director, who translate the story into
cinematic terms, have to learn to think cinematically, to become
cinema conscious. Like a good musician who hears the music while
reading the notes, the director while reading the story, or its adapta-
tion, must visualize it in actions, movements, and sounds with dialog
added for punch and clarity. Technical devices of the cinema and
their effects play the same role for the scenario writer and director
as do words for the writer of fiction. The richer and more expressive
the vocabulary of words, idioms, metaphors, and associations com-
272 B. V. MORKOVIN [j. s. M. p. E.
manded by a fiction writer, the greater the facility and freedom of
imagination in his writing. Likewise with the scenario writer and
the director; in order to express effectively the dramatic situations
and the mental states of the characters, they must have at their
finger tips a large "catalog" of dramatic effects and all the psycho-
logical capabilities of numerous technical devices of camera, light,
and sound, and must know also when and how to use them. If they
are not skilled in the cinematic technic and are not cinema conscious,
they will depend entirely upon the technicians for their cinematic
resources. They will not create an imaginative cinematic drama;
they will merely transpose the story scene by scene into terms of
camera and microphone with the customary dialog. They will use
literary and stage technic instead of the cinematic technic of move-
ment and interaction of characters.
In translating stories into motion pictures, scenario writers and
directors should adhere to rules governing their construction into
scenes and sequences that are in accordance with the essential
technical nature of cinema. Cinematic devices produced by the
camera and the microphone or by cutting must not be strung to-
gether mechanically. The attempt to do so by directors who are
not trained cinematically is equivalent to translating from one
language into another without possessing a knowledge of grammar
and syntax and trying to put together in a haphazard way the words
looked up in the dictionary.
The eyes and ears unconsciously register and coordinate in the brain
the different aspects of visual and aural experience. Being parts of
one head, eyes and ears blend their experiences automatically, each
reenforcing the other. The cinematic eye — the lens, and cinematic
ear — the microphone, do not proceed automatically to register and
coordinate the material they record. The brains behind them, the
cinematographer, the sound engineer, and the director, make a great
and deliberate effort to weld different visual and aural effects and
orchestrate them effectively, as it were, into a technical and dramatic
unity.
The "filmic" world by no means is a reproduction of the real world.
It is artificial and technical, through and through. It has its own
space and time; in conveying moods and delineating characters and
events, it uses its short-hand language of suggestions, contrasts,
comparisons, and symbolism. Working with prearranged illusions,
it is sometimes more realistic and vivid than reality itself. A force-
Mar., 1936] TECHNICAL AND DRAMATIC DEVICES 273
ful film can be produced only by a smoothly flowing continuity built
in a dramatically crescendo. For that purpose the director and editor
should know how to guide the spectator's thoughts and feelings into
a total dramatically unified impression; how to tell the story skill-
fully in pictures and sound, with well timed atmospheric effects
accomplished by the various technical devices. The attention of the
spectator is guided and directed by the distribution of light, converg-
ing lines and emphasis by contrast, by close-ups, by sound, inanimate
objects, dramatic clash, by increased or decreased tempo. A cine-
matically trained director having all the cinematic resources at the
tip of his finger, effectively organizes them and builds his drama as
an engineer with a thorough knowledge of his materials, combining
them according to the purpose he wishes to achieve. He keeps the
spectator's emotions at close grips with the unfolding cinematic
drama, stirring them profoundly at the climax, and sending the
spectator home after settling the main issues of the hero's predica-
ment.
The progress achieved by the technicians and engineers contributes
immensely to the dramatic progress and effectiveness of motion
pictures. The expressive power at the disposal of the writers and
directors depends upon the precision, sensitiveness, flexibility, and
efficiency of the equipment, and upon the ability to control the condi-
tions under which the equipment is used. The work is accomplished
by minutely dividing the labor of the technical workers and the func-
tions of the contrivances and instruments used. Each of these instru-
ments and devices produces different effects. The minute speciali-
zation of the work of each technician and each instrument increases
the difficulty of adjusting and harmonizing each phase of the work
with all the others.
The integration of all these effects into a practical unity resembles,
in a way, the solving of a jigsaw puzzle. And yet the success of a
picture and its ability to gain and hold the spectator's attention
spontaneously are not immediately due to the splendid technical
devices, but to the fact that the picture creates an impression of having
been made out of one piece and the single effects entirely submerged
by the whole.
Because of the need of harmoniously blending all the technical de-
vices to produce a unified dramatic effect, it is necessary that :
(1) The technicians have a fundamental knowledge of other technical media. —
274 B. V. MORKOVIN
camera, sound, light, composition, set construction, etc., since these are inter-
dependent and intertwined.
(2} The work of the technicians, in order to be in harmony with the aims of
the director, must be guided by an understanding of the dramatic purposes and
meanings of the devices they use and by the knowledge of fundamentals of the
dramatic structure.
The unprecedented progress of the American motion picture in-
dustry has secured its world leading position. If this position is to
be maintained, it is not sufficient to organize the progress in each of
its fields, technical and dramatic, separately; both fields should be
more closely interrelated, and the progress in technical machinery
and devices should be utilized more fully for psychological and dra-
matic effects. This would at the same time eliminate a good deal of
the production waste caused by the hit-and-miss methods. For this
purpose are required:
(1) Research into the interrelation of the technical, psychological, and dra-
matic aspects of cinematic devices.
(2} Research into the laws and technic of blending the effects of the various
optical and auditory devices into the new values and dramatic possibilities arising
from their combination.
(5) Opportunity for technicians and engineers to study the fundamentals of
other and adjacent technics, cinematic dramaturgy, and the dramatic and psy-
chological effects of the various technical devices.
(4) To provide facilities for the dramatic workers of the industry, scenario
writers, directors, editors, and others to study the fundamentals of motion pic-
ture technic and to experiment with it.
The industry must eliminate the haphazard methods of hit and
miss in organizing its production. The nature of the cinema
as an interrelation between the dramatic and the technical aspects
should be thoroughly understood and scientifically and experimentally
elucidated. When that is done, the difference between the motion
picture industry and the sausage or the automobile industry will be
clearly seen. New untouched and unlimited potentialities of motion
picture science, technic, and art will be opened. Then industry will
have the technical and dramatic super-experts, who will understand
the laws of blending harmoniously all the cinematic media, recognize
the technical and dramatic powers and possibilities of the cinema,
and how to use them in every changing situation. This research and
study should be organized by the studios for their members with the
cooperation of the various educational, engineering, scientific, and
dramatic bodies versed in the subject.
THE USE OF MOTION PICTURES IN HUMAN
POWER MEASUREMENT*
J. M. ALBERT**
Summary. — A brief description of the application of motion pictures to the study
of the motions of operatives in factories, etc. Eight-mm. film is used, and means are
provided for studying and analyzing the motions either at various speeds of projection
or frame by frame.
The object of this paper is to acquaint the motion picture engineer
with some of the problems that confront the industrial engineer, and
how the development of motion picture equipment for use in such
work is assisting to solve these problems.
All items of cost must be measured by some recognized unit, and
once the measuring unit is established, its evaluation in terms of
dollars is simple. Therefore, if the work of the industrial engineer is
to be accurate, all items of cost including labor cost must be reduced
to a unit-of-measurement terminology.
Until such a unit was developed by Chas. E. Bedaux some years ago,
industry had no uniform and accurate scale by which to measure the
expenditure of human effort. Men were hired by the year, the month,
day, hour, or piece for a certain sum, and their efforts were measured
by what they produced in terms of pounds, feet, gallons, etc. As a
historical record of cost this method enabled the business man to
know whether during the past year he had made a profit or a loss,
but it did not tell him why, nor did it provide him with any means of
controlling his expenditures.
In order to control costs it is necessary to know, not only the actual
costs, but, far more important, what the costs should have been.
Having established standards of production for each operation in the
plant, the setting of standard costs is quite simple. The Bedaux
Unit, or B, is the unit for measuring human effort. It is the work pro-
duced by a normal workman, working at a normal rate under normal
conditions, in one minute. Sixty Bedaux Units constitutes a standard
* Presented at the Spring, 1935, Meeting at Hollywood, Calif.
** Chas. E. Bedaux Co.,
275
276 J. M. ALBERT [J. S. M. P. E.
normal hour's work. This is standard performance, and is required of
every worker in the plant in order that he earn his base pay. To de-
termine the standard performance correctly and exactly two funda-
mental activities must be initiated, and several variable factors must
be determined: (^4) time studies, and (B) motion studies. Before the
development of light, portable motion picture equipment, time and
motion had to be studied separately. Time studies were made with
the stop-watch. Motion studies were made by observation. The two
were not synchronized, and the human factor entered into both to a
greater or less degree, depending upon the natural skill and the ac-
quired training of the persons making the studies.
The motion picture photograph obviated this difficulty, accurately
and permanently, but there still remained several important modifica-
tions or improvements to be made in the equipment itself. It was
found, for example, that the ordinary 8-mm. spring-driven Cine
Kodak was not timed accurately enough for time studies. Having but
one speed, which had a tendency to vary slightly in relation to the
tension of the spring, constant winding was necessary, which made it
rather awkward to use. Having no slow-speed attachment, its value
for motion and job analysis was very limited. Requiring considerable
space for the spring mechanism, etc., it did not hold sufficient film
for our purpose.
The equipment developed for time and motion study consists of an
8-mm. Cine Kodak with a lens working at object distances of 2 feet.
It is electrically driven, on any a-c. or d-c. circuit of voltage up to 130,
the speed being regulated in part by a central rheostat at the back of
the motor, but principally by a centrifugal governor. The camera
exposes 1000 frames of Super Sensitive film per minute at normal
speed, and 4000 frames at high speed. This gives us an exposure
possibility of 1/30 of a second for slow-motion work. It has been found
that, here in California, on clear brilliant days, little, if any, artificial
lighting is required. In any case, only one or two ordinary photo-
flood lamps and reflectors are required, set up at the proper distance
and angle relative to the operation to be studied.
Eight-mm. Super Sensitive film is put up in 16-mm. reels. One
half the width of the film is exposed at a time, the roll is then threaded
for running in the reverse direction, and the other half is then exposed.
The Bedaux measurement camera is designed to carry a maximum of
100 feet of 16-mm. film, or 200 feet of 8-mm. width. This provides
16 minutes' running time at standard speed, which is ample to cover
Mar., 1936] PICTURES IN HUMAN POWER MEASUREMENT 277
practically any operating cycle. In fact, most cycles are so short that
only a few feet of film are required for each one. Each cycle is, of
course, identified by photographing its number and symbol from a
number plate, after the study of the cycle is completed.
The photographic technic is but little more exacting than that
required of a good amateur. However, the technic of the industrial
engineer is considerably more professional than that. He is not con-
cerned with the facial make-up, or expression of the face of the sub-
ject, at any rate. 'He wants an accurate story of time and motion.
But the sets can not be staged. They must be the actual operations
performed in the shop and the factory under ordinary working condi-
tions. The movements of the hands must be seen, of the feet, the
body, the manipulation of the machine, and the machine itself in
operation.
In addition to modifying the camera, it was likewise necessary to
alter and improve the projector. Knowing the taking speed to a
split second was of little value unless the projection speed could be
controlled. This was done by equipping the projector with a speedom-
eter, a rheostat for controlling the motor speed, and a frame counter.
With these attachments we are able to project film at speeds of 50 to
150 per cent of the normal running speed. By throwing a switch, the
motor is cut out, and each frame can be projected as a still picture
by means of a hand-crank. In addition, a method of loop projection
has been developed. The film is cut at the end of an operation or
cycle photographed, and the two ends are joined together to form
a loop, which can be projected over and over again, slowed down or
speeded up, or projected a frame at a time with the aid of the hand-
crank, bringing the process or the machine and the operator literally
into the laboratory.
Each frame is studied and analyzed. The analysis is transferred
to an analysis sheet, where the study is continued. Wasted time
of either hand, or both hands, is shown on the analysis sheet lined in
red. Steps are taken to eliminate as largely as possible all waste time
and unnecessary motion. A corrected operation is formulated,
photographed, and analyzed, and the workers are trained to use the
corrected method by projecting the new loop. The loops, and the
analysis sheet taken from them, become permanent records of the
machine, the process, and the time and motion involved. Each loop
is filed in a humidifier cabinet with a card upon which has been
catalogued the description and number of the loop.
278 J. M. ALBERT
These film loop records constitute a complete record of operations
and equipment of great value to the industrialist. They bring time
and motion studies together for analysis, and enable the sequence of
motions to be studied and improved. Their use in job training for
new employees must be obvious. Experienced operators who
ordinarily are required to train the new workers may now remain at
their work, while the new workers are trained in the best accepted
method by means of the film loops.
In the case of the large manufacturer whose plants may be located
at various geographical points, duplicate loops sent to these scattered
plants or assembly stations show, in a language impossible to misin-
terpret, the management's approved method of operation; and as
new and improved methods are developed, loops taken of the new
process may be exchanged by the various plants. By the use of the
loops, accurate Bedaux units, or B values, are set with a minimum
of time and motion study. The system has been well received by
labor, for the reason that it improves the accuracy of labor measure-
ment and the establishment of correct fatigue allowances, and is
regarded as an outstanding contribution to the field of industrial
engineering. This equipment has been in actual use in applying
Bedaux measurement and production control for the past year, and
has made for itself a permanent place in time and motion studies and
in job analysis. It has enabled us to measure and set accurate stand-
ards for types of work which heretofore offered considerable technical
difficulties for visual observation.
WILLIAM KENNEDY LAURIE DICKSON
1860-1935
W. K. Laurie Dickson was born in France, of Scotch parentage, at
Chateau St. Buc, Minihic-sur-Ranse in 1860. He came to the United
States from England in 1879, and two years later was given a position
by Thomas A. Edison in the Edison Electric Works, Goerk St., New
York, N. Y., where he worked upon the standardization of electrical
apparatus. Four years later, in 1885, he was transferred to Mr.
Edison's private research laboratory at Newark, N. J.
During the year 1887 he began work under Edison's supervision
at the new laboratory building at Orange, N. J., upon a method of
combining photography with the phonograph, or as Edison expressed
it, "to devise an instrument that should do for the eye what the
phonograph does for the ear, and that, by a combination of the two,
all motion and sound could be recorded and reproduced simultane-
ously. ' '
The experiments progressed rather slowly for lack of a suitable
photographic recording material until December, 1888, when Dick-
son obtained experimental samples of a thin, transparent, reliable
photographic film from George Eastman at Rochester, N. Y. Several
types of intermittent movement had previously been tried out, and
a modified Maltese cross was adopted in the Autumn of 1888.
Rapid progress was made with the design of the camera or "kineto-
graph" during the Spring and Summer of 1889. A fast negative emul-
sion was used at first, both for the negatives and the prints, but later
a slow positive film was made available for printing. Several widths
of film and picture sizes were used before the l3/g-inch film width and
the 1 X 3/4-inch picture size were adopted in 1889. These film and
picture sizes remained the standard for the entire motion picture in-
dustry for many years, until the introduction of the photographic
sound-track, about 1928, forced the adoption of a smaller picture
size.
On October 6, 1889, Edison returned to his laboratory from an
extended visit of several weeks in Europe. It was on that occasion
279
280
G. E. MATTHEWS
[J. S. M. P. E.
that Dickson demonstrated for him the kineto-phonograph. This
instrument consisted of a peep-hole kinetoscope modified to project
a small picture from the continuously moving film. The pictures were
synchronized with a phonograph record.
Edison did not believe at that time that the whole idea would be
more than a passing fad, and, therefore, the continuous-motion
kinetoscope was designed and sold as a peep-hole device and its
William Kennedy Laurie Dickson,
1860-1935.
audience was restricted to one person at a time. The film as finally
adopted toward the end of 1889 had two rows of perforations, four
to each picture, and these specifications have been used for motion
pictures for the past 45 years.
Dickson also devised equipment for developing and printing the
film. He built the first motion picture studio in 1891-92, which came
to be known as the "Black Maria," because of its tar-paper exterior
covering. It was constructed upon a turntable so arranged that the
Mar., 1936] WILLIAM KENNEDY LAURIE DlCKSON 281
entire structure could be rotated so as to follow the sun. A section
of the roof was made to fold back to admit direct sunlight on the
actors. Most of the subjects photographed were single acts of leading
vaudeville stars of that period — 1889-95. Each motion picture
print was forty-seven feet long, and was released through Messrs.
Raff and Gammon of New York, who were agents for the kinetoscope.
Dickson's work between the years 1887 and 1895, therefore, em-
braced almost every phase of development of the motion picture,
with the exception of a practical projection device developed by
Thomas Armat in 1895-96. Summarized, these developments in-
cluded an intermittent camera using perforated film !3/8 inches wide,
sprocket wheels, a friction pulley, and a tension gate; a developing
outfit; a printer and a non-intermittent viewing device. He also
synchronized several pictures with the phonograph, and directed and
produced the first motion pictures that were shown commercially.
Although he left Edison's employ in 1895, he always praised his
chief, and gave him and George Eastman the major credit for invent-
ing the principal elements of the motion picture as it is known today.
In 1933 at the request of the Historical Committee of this Society,
Mr. Dickson prepared a detailed account of his work and illustrated
it with several interesting hand sketches and photographs.1 This
account included a discussion of his association with the American
Mutoscope and Biograph Company, and the famous Patents Com-
pany that was formed in 1908. It describes also some of his experi-
ences as a cameraman in Italy, where he was the first to make motion
pictures of the Pope, and his photography of the Boer War.
On October 16, 1933, W. K. L. Dickson was elected to Honorary
Membership in the Society. By his death on September 30, 1935,
we have lost a distinguished colleague whose contributions to the
birth of motion pictures were real and lasting.
GLENN E. MATTHEWS
REFERENCE
1 DICKSON, W. K. L.: "A Brief History of the Kinetograph, the Kineto-
scope, and the Kineto- Phonograph," J. Soc. Mot. Pict. Eng., XXI (Dec., 1933),
No. 6, p. 435.
OFFICERS AND GOVERNORS OF THE SOCIETY
1936
L. A. JONES S. K. WOLF J. I. CRABTREE
Engineering Vice-P resident Executive Vice-P resident Editorial Vice-President
H. G. TASKER
President
O. M. GLUNT
Financial Vice-P resident
282
A. N. GOLDSMITH
Past-President
W. C. KUNZMANN
Convention Vice-President
OFFICERS AND GOVFRNORS
283
J. H. KURLANDER
Secretary
T. E. SHEA
Treasurer
A. S. DICKINSON
Governor
H. GRIFFIN
Governor
A. C. HARDY
Governor
M. C. BATSEL
Governor
E. HUSE
Governor
284
OFFICERS AND GOVERNORS
SECTIONS OF THE SOCIETY
1936
L. W. DAVEE
Chairman, Atlantic
Coast Section
C. H. STONE
Chairman Mid- West
Section
G. F. RACKETT
Chairman, Pacific
Coast Section
ATLANTIC COAST SECTION
L. W. DAVEE, Chairman
H. G. TASKER, Past-Chairman
D. E. HYNDMAN, Sec.-Treas.
M. C. BATSEL, Manager
H. GRIFFIN, Manager
MID-WEST SECTION
C. H. STONE, Chairman
E. J. COUR, Past-Chairman
S. A. LUKES, Sec.-Treas.
O. B. DEPUE, Manager
B. E. STECHBART, Manager
PACIFIC COAST SECTION
G. F. RACKETT, Chairman
E. HUSE, Past-Chairman C. W. HANDLEY, Manager
H. W. MOYSE, Sec.-Treas. K. F. MORGAN, Manager
(For addresses of officers and governors, see the reverse of the contents page}
LIST OF MEMBERS*
AALBERG, J. O. (M)
157 S. Martel St., Los Angeles, Calif.
ABRAMS, S. (A)
10th & Allegheny Aves., Philadelphia,
Pa.
ABRIBAT, M. (M)
Kodak Pat he Research Laboratory,
Vincennes (Seine), France.
ADATTE, A. L. (4)
Pathe Exchange, Inc., Bound Brook,
N.J.
AHLUWALIA, B. S. (M)
c/o K. Singh, Canal Deputy, Col-
lector PWD, Jubbulpore, India.
AIKAWA, S. (^4)
Sendai Radio Broadcasting Station,
32 Kita-Ichiban-Cho, Sendai, Ja-
pan.
AIKEN, C. C. (A)
1 1 Wedgewood Walk, Merchant ville,
N.J.
ALBECKER, C. A. (A)
1753 S. Bedford St., Los Angeles,
Calif.
ALBERT, G. (A)
6 Rue Guil Raume Cell, Paris,
France.
ALBIN, F. G. (4)
United Artists Studio Corp., 1041
N. Formosa Ave., Hollywood, Calif.
ALDERSON, R. G. (^4)
13 Manor Drive, Mill Hill, London,
N. W. 7, England.
ALDRIDGE, K. W. (A)
39 Stearns Road, Watertown, Mass.
ALEXANDER, D. M. (M)
1830 Wood Ave., Colorado Springs,
Colo.
ALEXANDER, J. M. (4)
Audio Pictures, Ltd., 358-362 Ade-
laide St., West, Toronto, Ontario,
Canada.
ALLER, J. (M)
P. O. Box 1000, Hollywood, Calif.
ALLEY, G. L. (A)
Princeton, Missouri.
ALLSOP, R. (F)
Nalova, 19 Chelmsford Ave., Lind-
field, Sydney, N. S. W., Australia.
ALTIERE, E. S. A. (A)
31 Woodman St., Providence, R. I.
ALTMAN, F. E. (4)
Hawk Eye Works, Eastman Kodak
Co., Rochester, N. Y.
AMATI, L. (A)
Inst. of Physical Chemistry, Via
Loredan 4, Padova, Italy.
AMES, M. H. (A)
1343 Thayer Ave., Los Angeles, Calif.
ANDERS, H. (A)
Jam Handy Picture Service, 2821 E.
Grand Blvd., Detroit, Mich.
ANDERSON, E. L. (4)
U. S. S. Herbert 160, c/o Postmaster,
New York, N. Y.
ANDRES, L. J. (M)
6811 Ridgeland Ave., Apt. 3,
Chicago, 111.
Aocm, C. (A)
R. Konishi & Co., No. 1 3-Chome
Muromachi Nihonbashiku, Tokyo,
Japan.
AOYAMA, K. (A)
No. 389 Kyodo-Machi Setagaya-Ku,
Tokyo, Japan.
ARAGONES, D. (M)
Lauria 86, Barcelona, Spain.
* Italic letters in parentheses indicate grade of membership :
(H) Honorary Member (M) Active Member
(F) Fellow (A) Associate Member
285
286
LIST OF MEMBERS
[J. S. M. p. E.
ARAKI, J. K. (A)
P. O. Box 513, Honolulu, Hawaii.
ARMAND, V. (A)
Famous Players Canadian Corp.,
Ltd., Capitol Theater Building,
Winnipeg, Canada.
ARMAT, T. (H)
1063 31st St., Washington, D. C.
ARMSTRONG, H. L. (A)
Allentown, N. J.
ARNOLD, P. (M)
AgfaAnsco Corp., Binghamton, N. Y.
ARNSPIGER, V. C. (A)
Electrical Research Products, Inc.,
250 West 57th St., New York,
N. Y.
ARORA, P. N. (A)
Film City Sound Studios India Ltd.,
160 Tardio Road, Bombay, India.
ASANO, S. (A)
7-12 1 Chome Fujimicho, Kojima-
chiku, Tokyo, Japan.
ASCHEL, H. (A)
G. M. Film, 12 Rue Carducci, Paris,
France.
ATKINSON, R. B. (^4)
6706 Santa Monica Blvd., Los
Angeles, Calif.
ATKINSON, S. C. (A)
Regina Photo Supply, Ltd., 1924
Rose St., Regina, Sask., Canada.
AUGER, E. (^4)
RCA Manufacturing Co., Inc.,
Camden, N. J.
AUSTRIAN, R. B. (A)
RCA Manufacturing Co., Inc., 411
Fifth Ave., New York, N. Y.
AYERS, A. P., JR. (A)
49 Pratt St., Glastonbury, Conn.
AVIL, G. (A)
16600 Westmoreland Road, Detroit,
Mich.
BACHMAN, C. J. (M)
870 Broad St., Newark, N. J.
BADGLEY, F. C. (F)
Canadian Government Motion Pic-
ture Bureau, Ottawa, Canada.
BAKER, G. W. (M)
20 McEldowny St., Chicago Heights,
111.
BAKER, J. O. (M)
4311 W. Maple Ave., Merchantville,
N.J.
BAKER, R. J. (A)
1911 Kalakaua Ave., Honolulu,
Hawaii.
BAKER, T. T. (A)
12 E. 86th St., New York, N. Y.
BAKER, W. R. G. (F)
General Electric Co., Bridgeport
Conn.
BAKHSHI, M. N. (A)
P. O. Box 5511, Bombay, India.
BALI, D. N. (A)
c/o R. Rallia Ram Bali Magistrate,
Dinga Dist Gujrat, Punjab, India.
BALL, J. A. (F)
Drawer B, Hollywood, Calif.
BALLANTYNE, R. S. (^4)
219 N. 16th St., Omaha, Nebr.
BALTIMORE, D. M. (A)
315 Washington St., Elmira, N. Y.
BAMFORD, W. B. (A)
614 10th Avenue, Belmar, N. J.
BANKS, C. (M)
Industrial & Educational Films,
N. Z., c/o Technical Publications,
Ltd., 22-24 Brandon St., P. O.
Box 1572, Wellington, C. 1, New
Zealand.
BARBER, C. E. (A)
Box 1334, Oklahoma City, Okla.
BARKELEW, J. T. (A)
413 Edison Bldg., Los Angeles, Calif.
BARKMAN, C. (A)
Strand Theater, Cumberland, Md.
BARROWS, T. C. (M)
Metropolitan Theater, Boston,
Mass.
BARZEE, G. W. (^4)
Western Electric Co., Caixa Postal
494, Sao Paulo, Brazil.
BASS, C. (M)
Bass Camera Co., 179 W. Madison
St., Chicago, 111.
Mar., 1930]
LIST OF MEMBERS
287
BATCHELOR, J. C. (A)
515 Madison Ave., New York,
N. Y.
BATSEL, M. C. (F)
RCA Manufacturing Co., Inc., Cam-
den, N. J.
BATTLE, G. H. (A)
805 Davenport Road, Toronto, On-
tario, Canada.
BAUER, E. L. (A)
121 Goldengate Ave., San Francisco,
Calif.
BAUER, K. A. (A)
Carl Zeiss, Inc., 485 Fifth Ave., New
York, N. Y.
BAUMANN, H. C. (.4)
829 Emerson Ave., Elizabeth, N. J.
BEACH, F. G. (A)
105 West 40th St., Room 511, New
York, N. Y.
BEAN, D. P. (A)
The University of Chicago Press,
5750 Ellis Avenue, Chicago, 111.
B BARMAN, A. A. (^4)
Fox Film Corp., 444 West 56th St.,
New York, N. Y.
BECKER, A. (4)
500 Pearl St., Buffalo, N. Y.
BEDORE, R. P. (A)
1750 N. Springfield Ave., Chicago,
111.
BEERS, N. T. (M)
420 Clinton Ave., Brooklyn, N. Y.
BEGGS, E. W. (M)
Westinghouse Lamp Company,
Bloomfield, N. J.
BEHR, H. D. (,4)
135-07 234th Place, Laurelton, L. I.,
N. Y.
BELL, A. E. (A)
48 Conyingham Ave., West New
Brighton, S. L, N. Y.
BELLINGER, C. E. (A)
5614 Chippewa St., St. Louis,
Mo.
BENDHEIM, E. McD. (A)
19-22 22nd Drive, Astoria, L. I.,
N. Y.
BENNETT, D.
Motion Picture Division, U. S. De-
partment of Agriculture, Washing-
ton, D. C.
BENNETT, R. C. (M)
4327 Duncan Ave., St. Louis, Mo.
BERG, A. G. (A)
Hotel Carteret, 208 West 23rd St.,
New York, N. Y.
BERG, B. (A)
Fox Film Corp., 1401 N. Western
Ave., Los Angeles, Calif.
BERNDT, E. M. (M)
112 East 73rd St., New York, N. Y.
BERTIN, H. (M)
79 Boulevard Haussmann, Paris,
France.
BEST, G. M. (A)
c/o Warner Bros. Studios, Burbank,
Calif.
BETTELLI, F. J. (A)
728 Vine St., Philadelphia, Pa.
BETTS, W. L. (M)
Bell Telephone Laboratories, Inc.,
463 West St., New York, N. Y.
BHALCHANDRA, M. C. (A)
Prakash Pictures, Visawa Road,
Andheri, Bombay, India.
BIBEN, B. F. (A)
5011 Wynnfield Ave., Philadelphia,
Pa.
BIDDY, R. (A)
2995 Taylor St., Detroit, Mich.
BIELICKE, W. F. (F)
Astro-Gesellschaft m. b. H., Berlin-
Neuckolln, Lahnstr. 30, Germany.
BIELICKE, W. P. (M)
127 West 63rd St., New York, N. Y.
BIRD, C. L. L. (A)
228 Franklin St., Buffalo, N. Y.
BISHOP, G. A., JR. (A)
77 Conant St., Fall River, Mass.
BlTTMANN, H. (A)
Via Umbria 7, Rome, Italy.
BLAIR, G. A. (F)
Eastman Kodak Co., 343 State St.,
Rochester, N. Y.
288
LIST OF MEMBERS
[J. S. M. p. E.
BLAKE, E. E. (A}
Kodak, Ltd., 63, Kingsway, W. C. 2,
London, England.
BLANCK, R. M. (M)
Calle Mallorca 201, Barcelona,
Spain.
BLANCO, E. (A)
Diego De Leon 39, Madrid, Spain.
BLENKARNE, P. C. (A)
Chancery Chambers, O'Connell St.,
Auckland, N. Z.
BLESSINGTON, E. (A)
1618 Argyle, Hollywood, Calif.
BLINN, A. F. (A)
1220 North Sycamore Ave., Holly-
wood, Calif.
BLIVEN, J. E. (M)
P. O. Box 91, New London, Conn.
BLOOM, R. B. (A)
1105 Conewango Ave., Warren, Pa.
BLOOMBERG, D. J. (If)
RCA Manufacturing Company, Inc.,
411 Fifth Avenue, New York,
N. Y.
BLOOMER, K. V. (A}
Mount Kisco National Bank, Mount
Kisco, N. Y.
BLUMBERG, H. (A)
National Theater Supply Co., 1317
Vine St., Philadelphia, Pa.
BOEHM, H. L. (M)
Lackierergasse 1, Vienna, IX, Aus-
tria.
BOLTON, W. A. (A)
205 Haines Ave., Barrington, N. J.
BOMAN, A. (^4)
508 Summit Ave., Union City, N. J.
BONN, L. A. (M)
Chappaqua, N. Y.
BORBERG, W. (A)
26-80 30th St., Astoria, L. I., N. Y.
BORGESON, L. G. (A)
680 Santa Barbara St., Pasadena,
Calif.
BOURNE, R. E. (A]
1150 Burnaby St., Vancouver,
Canada.
BOYLEN, J. C. (M)
Asst. Editor of Publications, Ca-
nadian Pacific Ry. Co., Montreal,
P. Quebec, Canada.
BRADFORD, A. J. (F)
12110 Kentucky Ave., Detroit,
Mich.
BRADLEY, J. G. (.4)
The National Archives, Washington,
D. C.
BRADSHAW, A. E. (M)
902 Sheridan Ave., Tacoma, Wash.
BRADSHAW, D. Y. (M)
Fox Hearst Corporation, 460 West
54th St., New York, N Y.
BRADY, R. F. (A)
Pathescope Co. of America, Inc., 33
West 42nd St., New York, N. Y.
BRADY, S. S. (4)
Hewlett Ave., East Patchogue, L. I.,
N. Y.
BRAGGIO, J. C. (A)
International Telephone & Telegraph
Corp., Defensa 143, Buenos Aires,
Argentina.
BRENEMAN, G. H. (A}
234 Franklin St., Buffalo, N. Y.
BRENKERT, K. (M)
Brenkert Light Projection Co., 7348
St. Aubin Ave., Detroit, Mich.
BREWSTER, J. R. (4)
12 Howland St., Cambridge, Mass.
BREWSTER, P. D. (F)
Brewster Color Film Corp., 58 First
St., Newark, N. J.
BRICHTA, J. C. (A)
11 Vojdesska 11, Prague, Czecho-
slovakia.
BROADHEAD, D. T. (A)
Box 183, Wellsville, N. Y.
BROCK, G. (M)
528 Riverside Drive, New York,
N. Y.
BROCKWAY, W. W. (M)
8910 David Ave., Los Angeles, Calif.
BROOKS, G. E. (A)
Box 95, Longton, Kansas.
Mar., 1936]
LIST OF MEMBERS
289
BROWN, J. C. (M)
704 South Spring St., Los Angeles,
Calif.
BROWN, S. D. (4)
528 Euclid St., Santa Monica, Calif.
BUB, G. L. (A)
U. S. Army Motion Picture Service,
2nd & Arsenal St., Bldg. 3,
St. Louis, Mo.
BUCEK, H. (A)
41 Schubertstr, Moedling, Austria.
BUDDE, H. (M)
Room 707, Ambassador Building,
St. Louis, Mo.
BUDDEN, P. H. (M)
Commonwealth Film Laboratories,
Ltd., 60 Wilton St., Surrey Hills,
Sydney, Australia.
BUENO, P. G. (A)
S. I. C. E., Apartado 990, Madrid,
Spain.
BUENSOD, A. G. (M)
Buensod-Stacey Air Conditioning,
Inc., 60 E. 42nd St., New York,
N. Y.
BURCHETT, C. W. (M)
Box 491, San Francisco, Calif.
BUREL, L. H. (A)
Villa Canaris Blancs, St. Jean Cap
Ferret, A. M., France.
BURGUNDY, J. J. (A)
2434 Prospect Ave., New York, N. Y.
BURNAP, R. S. (F)
RCA Radiotron Co., Harrison, N. J.
BURNAT, H. (A)
70 Rue Lauriston, Paris, 16e, France.
BURNETT, J. C. (F)
Burnett-Timken Research Labora-
tory, Alpine, N. J.
BURNS, J. J. (A)
31 Ridley Gardens, Toronto, On-
tario, Canada.
BURNS, S. R. (F)
International Projector Corp., 90
Gold Street, New York, N. Y.
BUSCH, G. A. (M)
76 Hillside Ave., Teaneck, N. J.
BUSCH, H. (A)
1306 So. Michigan Ave., Chicago,
111.
BUSCH, L. N. (M)
Kodak Aktiengesellschaft, Fried-
richshagenerstrasse 9, Berlin-
Copenick, Germany.
BUSH, A. J. (4)
144 Nicholas Road, Chorlton-Cum-
Hardy, Manchester, England.
BUSHBY, T. R. W. (A)
2 Davellen Oakley Road, North
Bondi, N. S. W., Australia.
BUSSE, F. (F)
I. G. Farbenindustrie, Kamerawerk,
Tegernseerlandstr. 161, Muen-
chen, Germany.
BUSSELL, E. J. (A)
6342 West 6th St., Los Angeles,
Calif.
BUSICK, D. W. (M)
2534 Vineyard Ave., Los Angeles,
Calif.
BUTTOLPH, L. J. (F)
General Electric Vapor Lamp Co.,
410 8th St., Hoboken, N. J.
BYRNE, W. W. (A)
2054 East 67th St., Brooklyn, N. Y.
CABIROL, C. (M)
Pathescope, Ltd., 5 Lisle St., Leices-
ter Sq., London, W. C. 2, England.
CADDIGAN, J. L. (M)
58 Barkeley St., Boston, Mass.
CAHILL, F. E., JR. (M)
Warner Bros. Theaters, Inc., 321
West 44th St., New York, N. Y.
CAMERON, J. R. (F)
Woodmont, Conn.
CANADY, D. R. (M)
19570 So. Sagamore Road, Fairview
Village, Cleveland, Ohio.
CANTOR, O. E. (A)
48 Linden Terrace, Leonia, N. J.
CANTRELL, W. A. (A)
503 East Prescot Road, Knotty Ash,
Liverpool, England.
290
LIST OF MEMBERS
[J. S. M. p. E.
CAPSTAFF, J. G. (F)
Eastman Kodak Co., Kodak Park,
Rochester, N. Y.
CARLSON, A. (A)
250 S. Elmwood Ave., Burbank,
Calif.
CARLSON, F. E. (A)
General Electric Co., Eng. Dep't.,
Nela Park, Cleveland, Ohio.
CARPENTER, A. W. (^4)
United Research Corp., Burbank,
Calif.
CARPENTER, E. S. (M)
Escar Motion Picture Service, Inc.,
10008 Carnegie Ave., Cleveland,
Ohio.
CARPENTER, H. J. (A)
Parkview Apts., Suite E, Brandon,
Manitoba, Canada.
CARRERE, J. G. (A)
Studios De Neuilly, 42 Bis Blvd. du
Chateau, Neuilly sur Seine,
France.
CARSON, W. H. (F)
The Barclay, 111 E. 48th St., New
York, N. Y.
CARTER, J. C. (A)
Linde Air Products Co., 205 East
42nd St., New York, N. Y.
CARTER, W. S. (A)
381 Third Avenue, Ottawa, Canada.
CARULLA, R. (M)
1254 East 31st St., Brooklyn, N. Y.
CARVER, E. K. (F)
Manufacturing Experiments Dep't.,
Eastman Kodak Co., Rochester,
N. Y.
CASTAGNARO, D. (A)
1726 75th St., Brooklyn, N. Y.
CATTELL, R. E. (A)
26 Broadway, New York, N. Y.
CAUMONT, N. (A)
32-36 150th Place, Flushing, N. Y.
CAVE, G. A. (M)
1771 Hillcrest Ave., Glendale, Calif.
CAVE, R. T. (A)
10850 Bloomfield St., No. Holly-
wood, Calif.
CECCARINI, O. O. (M)
Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer Studios, Cul-
ver City, Calif.
CECCHI, U. (A)
Cinemeccanica S. A., Viale Cam-
pania 25, Milan, Italy.
CELESTIN, W. E. (M)
Keller-Dorian Color Film Co., 522
Fifth Ave., New York, N. Y.
GENDER, E. O. (M)
National Theater Supply Co., 1560
Broadway, New York, N. Y.
CHAMBERS, G. A. (M)
Eastman Kodak Co., 6706 Santa
Monica Blvd., Hollywood, Calif.
CHAMPION, C. H. (F)
Chas. Champion & Co., Ltd., 60
Wardour St., London, W. 1,
England.
CHANG, S. C. (A)
Star Motion Picture Co., Ltd., 744
Rue Bourgeat, Shanghai, China.
CHAPMAN, A. B. (A)
RCA Victor Company, Sante Fe
Building, Dallas, Texas.
CHAPMAN, C. T. (A)
1212 Noyes St., Evanston, 111.
CHASE, L. W. (A)
Eastman Kodak Co., 6706 Santa
Monica Blvd., Hollywood, Calif.
CHATTER JEE, R. N. (A)
RCA Institute, 75 Varick St., New
York, N. Y.
CHEFTEL, A. M. (M)
22 Rue de Civry, Paris, Xvie,
France.
CHERETON, A. B. (A)
3251 Monterey Ave., Detroit, Mich.
CHIBAS, J. E. (A)
Calle 25 y G — Vedado, Havana,
Cuba.
CHILDS, J. A. (A)
Box 211, Waterville, Maine.
CHORINE, A. F. (M)
Apartment 38, Blochin Str. 4-3,
Leningrad, U. S. S. R.
Mar., 1936]
LIST OF MEMBERS
291
CHOW, K. (A)
288 Bubbling Well Road, Shanghai,
China.
CHRETIEN, H. (F)
23 Rue Preschez, St. Cloud, France.
CHURCH, A. E. (A)
4(5 Haverford Ave., Rochester, N. Y.
CIFRE, J. S. (M)
181 Wessagussett Road, North Wey-
mouth, Mass.
CLARK, J. P. (M)
1228 Vine St., Philadelphia, Pa.
CLARK, L. E. (M)
2327 Glendon Ave , West Los
Angeles, Calif.
CLARK, W. (F)
Research Laboratory, Eastman Ko-
dak Co., Rochester, N Y.
CLARKE, W. H. (A)
29 Glede Road, Cheam, Surrey,
England.
CLEVELAND, H. B. (4)
1808 Catalina Ave., Berkeley, Calif.
COFFINBERRY, C. M. (/I)
714 Underwood Bldg., San Fran-
cisco, Calif.
COHAN, E. K. (M)
Columbia Broadcasting System, Inc.,
485 Madison Ave., New York,
N. Y.
COHEN, C. (A)
1821 Roselyn St., Philadelphia, Pa.
COHEN, J. (A)
1250 51st St., Brooklyn, N. Y.
COHEN, J. H. (M}
Atlantic Gelatine Co., Hill St.,
Woburn, Mass.
COHEN, S. (A)
1456 Chew St., Philadelphia, Pa.
COLE, F. H., JR. (A)
1358 S. Grand Ave., Los Angeles,
Calif.
COLEMAN, E. W. (A)
Fox-West Coast Theaters, 988 Mar-
ket St., San Francisco, Calif.
COLES, F. A. (A)
Bell Telephone Laboratories, Inc.,
463 West St., New York, N. Y.
COLLINS, D. W. (A)
1350 Whitney Ave., Hamden, Conn.
COLLINS, M. E. (A)
Box 108, Camden, N. J.
COMI, E. G. (A)
">3 Favre St., Mattapan, Mass.
COMSTOCK, T. F. (A)
Pathescope Co. of America, Inc., 33
West 42nd St., New York, N. Y.
CONTNER, J. B. (M)
Blue Seal Sound Devices, Inc., 723
Seventh Ave., New York, N. Y.
COOK, A. A. (M)
Bausch & Lomb Optical Co., Roches-
ter, N. Y.
COOK, E. D. (A)
10 Media Road, Colwick, N. J.
COOK, H. R., JR. (A)
68 Harrington Ave., Westwood, N. J.
COOK, O. W. (M)
Eastman Kodak Company, Kodak
Park Works, Rochester, N. Y.
COOK, W. B. (F)
Kodascope Libraries, 33 West 42nd
St., New York, N. Y.
COOLIDGE, P. E. (M)
58 Berkley St., Boston, Mass.
COOPER, J. A. (A)
1909 Metropolitan Bldg., Toronto 2,
Ontario, Canada.
COOPER, M. F. (A)
269 Kingston Road, Merton Park,
London, S. W. 19, England.
COPLEY, J. S. (-4)
P. O. Box 6087, Cleveland, Ohio.
CORBIN, R. M. (M)
Kodak Japan, Ltd., 3 Nishiroku
Chome Ginza, Kyobashi, P. O.
Box 28, Tokyo, Japan.
CORDONUIER, J. (A)
131 Avenue de Suffren, Paris,
France.
CORRIGAN, J. T. (M}
1819 G St., N. W., Washington,
D. C.
COTTET, A. (A)
7 Av de La Porte Chaumont, Paris,
Xixo, France.
292
LIST OF MEMBERS
[J. S. M. P. E.
COURCIER, J. L. (M)
c/o J. E. Brulatour, Inc., 6700 Santa
Monica Blvd., Hollywood, Calif.
COURMES, M. (A)
9 Rue Jacques Dulud, Neuilly-Sur-
Seine, France.
COUSINS, V. M. (A)
Bell Telephone Laboratories, Inc.,
463 West St., New York, N. Y.
COWLING, H. T. (A)
4700 Connecticut Ave., N. W.,
Washington, D. C.
Cox, L. R. (A)
111 N. Canal St., Chicago, 111.
COZZENS, L. S. (M}
Dupont Film Mfg. Co., Parlin, N. J.
CRABTREE, J. (F)
Bell Telephone Laboratories, Inc.,
463 West St., New York, N. Y.
CRABTREE, J.I. (F)
Research Laboratory, Eastman Ko-
dak Company, Rochester, N. Y.
CRABTREE, T. H. (4)
Bell Telephone Laboratories, Inc.,
463 West St., New York, N. Y.
CRANE, J. E. (4)
2316 So. Highland Ave., Hollywood,
Calif.
CRAWFORD, W. C. (4)
46 Gorget Ave., Glasgow, W. 3,
Scotland.
CRENNAN, O. V. (^4)
200 Eastchester Road, New Rochelle,
N. Y.
CROSS, C. E. (A)
Cinesound Productions, Ltd., Ebley
St., Waverley, Sydney, Australia.
CROSS, W. E. (A)
Hotel Hurth, Portsmouth, Ohio.
CROWE, H. B. (A)
Ritz Theater, Elizabethton, Tenn.
CUNNINGHAM, O. J. (4)
15381 Brewster Road, E. Cleveland,
Ohio.
CUNNINGHAM, R. G. (M)
2409 Sixth St., Coytesville, N. J.
CUNNINGHAM, T. D. (^4)
732 Mt. Vernon Ave., Haddonfield,
N.J.
CURLE, C. E. (A)
19 Fairview Drive, Battery Heights,
Chattanooga, Tenn.
CURTIS, E. P. (F)
Eastman Kodak Co., 343 State St.,
Rochester, N. Y.
CUTHBERTSON, H. B. (M}
Paramount News, 544 West 43rd
St., New York, N. Y.
DAEHR, H. (A)
I. G. Farbenindustrie Aktiengessel-
schaft., Kine Technical Dept.,
Berlin, S. O. 36, Germany.
DALOTEL, M. (M)
29 Rue Pasteur, Colombes, Seine,
France.
DAN, D. Y. (A)
Shanghai Sound Picture Co., 27
Fusan Road, Shanghai, China.
DANCE, H.R.U)
5 Westbourne Crescent, Hyde Park,
W. 2, London, England.
DANIELSON, D. (4)
1002 North Main St., Russell,
Kansas.
DARBY, E. (^4)
2 Maidstone Park Rd. S. E. 1,
Auckland, New Zealand.
DASH, C. C. (M)
Hertner Electric Co., 12690 Elm-
wood Ave., Cleveland, Ohio.
DAVEE, L. W. (F)
Electrical Research Products, Inc.,
250 West 57th St., New York,
N. Y.
DAVIDGE, L. C. (F)
Roy Davidge Film Laboratories,
R. 400, 5225 Wilshire Blvd., Holly-
wood, Calif.
Davis, D. R. (A)
RCA Victor Company, 1704 Wyan-
dotte St., Kansas City, Mis-
souri.
Mar., 1936]
LIST OF MEMBERS
293
DAVIS, J. B. (A)
3 Riggs Court, N. W., Washington,
D. C.
Davis, S. I. (A)
425 Montview Place, Wilkinburg,
Pa.
DE BEAULIEU, L. (A)
6819 Simpson Ave., North Holly-
wood, Calif.
DE BRETAGNE, J. (A)
Paris Studio Cinema, 50 Quai Point
du Jeur, Billancourt, Seine,
France.
DEBRIE, A. (F)
111-113 Rue St. Maur, Paris,
France.
DEFEO, L. (Af)
Roma Villa Medioevale Torlonia,
via Lazzaro Spallanzani La, Rome,
Italy.
DEFRENES, J. (M)
1909 Buttonwood St., Philadelphia,
Pa.
DEGHUEE, C. M. (A)
101 Liberty Ave., Mineola, L. I.,
N. Y.
DEIVERNOIS, P. J. (A)
2446 Rydal St., Crafton Heights,
Pittsburgh, Pa.
DELVALLE, G. A. (A)
RCA Manufacturing Co., Inc.,
Camden, N. J.
DEMALLIE, R. B. (M)
Kodak Japan, Ltd., 3-Nishiro-
kuchome, Ginza, Tokyo, Japan.
DEMOS, G. (4)
1428 N. Ogden Drive, Hollywood,
Calif.
DENAPOLI, A. C., JR. (M)
2826 Decatur Ave., Bronx, N. Y.
DENK, J. M. (A)
2829 Holt St., Los Angeles, Calif.
DENNEY, W. (A)
223 West 18th St , Kansas City,
Missouri.
DENSMORE, R. E. (A)
5244 Melrose Ave., Hollywood,
Calif.
DENTELBECK, C. (M)
61 Albert St., Toronto, Ontario,
Canada.
DE PEREZ, J. (A)
Sta. Maria La Redonda 61, Dep't P,
Mexico, D. F.
DEPUE, B. W. (M)
Burton Holmes Lectures, Inc.,
7510 No. Ashland Ave., Chicago,
111.
DEPUE, O. B. (F)
7512 North Ashland Ave., Chicago,
DL
DEROBERTS, R. (M)
The Gevaert Co. of America, Inc.,
423 West 55th St., New York,
N. Y.
DETMERS, F. H. (A)
5656 Fountain Ave., Los Angeles,
Calif.
DE URGOITI, R. M. (M)
Filmofono, S. A., 4 Plaza del Callao,
Madrid, Spain.
DEUTSCHER, D. (4)
33 Prospect Ave., Lynbrook, L. I.,
N. Y.
DEVOE, E. M. (4)
956 E. 156th St., Bronx, N. Y.
DEVRY, H. A. (F)
1111 Center St., Chicago, 111.
DICKINSON, A. S. (F)
Motion Picture Producers & Dis-
tributors of America, Inc., 28
West 44th St., New York,
N. Y.
DICKINSON, E. A. (A)
10 Hawthorne Place, East Orange,
N.J.
DioiEE, L. J. J. (A)
Societe Kodak- Pathe, 39 Ave. Mon-
taigne, Paris, France.
DILLEMUTH, H. G. (.4)
79 Ivyhurst Road, Eggertsville,
N. Y.
294
LIST OF MEMBERS
[J. S. M. P. E.
DIMMICK, G. L. (4)
RCA Manufacturing Co., Inc., Eng.
Bldg. 5, Camden, N. J.
DINGA, E. W. (A)
4514 43rd St., Long Island City,
N. Y.
Dix, H. W. (F)
Austin & Dix, 120 Broadway, New
York, N. Y.
DOBSON, G. (M)
494 Dwas Line Road, Clifton, N. J.
DOBSON, H. T. (A)
99 Normandy Blvd., Toronto, On-
tario, Canada.
DODDRELL, E. T., JR. (A)
151 Wainui Road, Kaiti, Gisborne,
New Zealand.
DOIRON, A. L. (A)
Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer Studios, Cul-
ver City, Calif.
DONALD, J. McL. (4)
Cutone Precision Engineers, Ltd.,
542 Manukau Road, Epsom,
Auckland, New Zealand.
DOWNES, A. C. (F)
National Carbon Company, Inc.,
Box 6087, Cleveland, Ohio.
DREHER, C. (F)
RKO Studios, Inc., 780 Gower St.,
Hollywood, Calif.
DUBRAY, J. A. (F)
Bell & Howell Co., 716 No. La Brea
Ave., Hollywood, Calif.
DUDIAK, F. (A)
Fairmont Theater, Fairmont, West
Va.
DUFFY, C. J. (A)
86 Franklin St., Providence, R. I.
DUISBERG, W. H. 04)
Patent Research, Inc., 521 Fifth
Ave., New York, N. Y.
DUNNING, C. H. (F}
Dunning Process Co., 932 No. La
Brea Ave., Hollywood, Calif.
DUNNING, O. M. (4)
Thomas A. Edison, Inc., Orange,
N.J.
DURST, J. A. (4)
2216 5th Ave., Los Angeles, Calif.
DUSMAN, H. C. (A)
213 N. Calvert St., Baltimore, Md.
DWYER, A. J. (A)
4327 Duncan Ave., St. Louis, Mo.
DWYER, R. J. (A)
180 Spruce Ave., Rochester, N. Y.
DYKEMAN, C. L. (Af)
Dyke Cinema Products Co., 133-12
228th St., Laurelton, N. Y.
DYSON, C. H. (A)
47 New St., Brighton Beach, Mel-
bourne, S. 5, Australia.
EAGER, M. (A)
75 Abbott Rd., Wellesley Hills,
Mass.
ECKLER, L. (M)
Agfa Ansco Corp., Binghamton,
N. Y.
EDER, F. B. (M)
Avenida 5, De Outubro, 201 R.-C.
Do, Lishoa, Portugal.
EDISON, T. M. (A)
Thomas A. Edison, Inc., West
Orange, N. J.
EDOUART, A. F. (M}
Paramount Publix Corp., 5451 Mara-
thon St., Hollywood, Calif.
EDWARDS, G. C. (F)
49 Trafalgar Sq., Lynbrook, L. I.,
N. Y.
EDWARDS, N. (4)
23 William St., South Yarra, S. E. 1,
Australia.
EGROT, L. G. (M)
52 Avenue Des Charmes, Vincennes
(Seine), France.
EHLERT, H. H. (A)
H. E. R. Laboratories, Inc., 457 West
46th St., New York, N. Y.
EICH, F. L. (A)
128 S. Laurel Ave., Los Angeles,
Calif.
ELDERKIN, J. K. (M)
J45 Valley St., Belleville, N. J.
Mar., 1936]
LIST OF MEMBERS
295
ELLIS, E. P. (A)
19 Curtis Place, Maple wood, N. J.
ELLIS, F. E., JR. (A)
717 W. Wells St., Milwaukee, Wis.
ELLISON, M. (M)
1402 3-4 Edgecliff, Los Angeles,
Calif.
ELMER, L. A. (M)
Bell Telephone Laboratories, Inc.,
463 West St.. New York, N. Y.
ELWELL, C. F. (M)
Chestnut Close, Kingswood, Surrey,
England.
EMERSON, M. (4)
3217 Corlear Ave., New York, N. Y.
EMLEY, R. H. (A)
134 Rodney Ave., New Brunswick,
N.J.
EMMER, J. E. (A)
Y. M. C. A. Downtown, Room 641,
St. Louis, Mo.
ENDERLE, J. (.4)
268 Western Ave., Albany, N. Y.
ENGL, J. B. (F)
97 Bismarkstrasse, Berlin-Charlot-
tenburg, Germany.
ENGLE, J. W. (A)
Box 7, Merrick, N. Y.
ESHELMAN, G. M., JR. (A)
Hartville, Ohio.
ESSIG, A. G. (A)
924 Foulkrod St., Philadelphia. Pa.
ESTEL, G. A., JR. (A)
3407 E. Eighth St., Des Moines,
Iowa.
EVANS, G. W. (A)
455 Duquesne Drive, Mount Leba-
non, Pittsburgh, Pa.
EVANS, P. H. (F)
Vitaphone Corporation, 1277 East
14th St., Brooklyn, N. Y.
EVANS, R. (F)
Division of Motion Pictures, U. S.
Dept. of Agriculture, Washington,
D. C.
EVANS, R. M. (F)
Kodak Research Laboratory, East-
man Kodak Co., Rochester, N. Y.
FAITHFULL, G.
Archibald Nettlefold Productions,
The Studios, Hurst Grove, Wal-
ton-on-Thames, England.
FALQUET, A. (A)
Kodak S. P. z. o. o., 5 Place Napo-
leon, Warsaw, Poland.
FAMULENER, K. (4)
590 Fort Washington Ave., New
York, N. Y.
FAN, W. S. (4)
United Photoplay Services, Ltd.,
Passage No. 1980 Avenue Joffre
House No. 1, Shanghai, China.
FARNHAM, R. E. (F)
General Electric Co., Nela Park,
Cleveland, Ohio.
FARRAND, C. L. (F)
United Research Corp., Burbank,
Calif.
FARVER, B. R. (A)
711 18th Ave., Honolulu, Hawaii.
FAULKNER, T. (M)
145 W. 55th St., New York, N. Y.
FAUST, A. (A)
Recreation Office, Schofield Bks.,
Honolulu, T. Hawaii.
FAZALBHOY, Y. A. (A)
Putla Mansion, Darabshaw Rd., Off
Napean Sea Road, Bombay, 6,
India.
FELTHOUSEN, A. J. (A)
515 Walnut Drive, Glendale, Calif.
FENIMORE, R. W. (M)
2332 Tuxedo St., Detroit, Mich.
FERGUSON, D. C. (A)
P. O. Box 7, Memphis, Tenn.
FERNANDEZ, M. A. (A)
Ave. Rep. Argentina 91-93, Mexico,
D. F., Mexico
FERRENA, W. C. (A)
P. O. Box 111, Honolulu, Hawaii.
FIELD, A. (A)
37 Rue Condorcet, Paris, France.
FIELD. W. J. (A)
45-11 43rd Ave., Long Island City,
N. Y.
296
LIST OF MEMBERS
[J. S. M. p. E.
FIELDS, G. B. (4)
5638 Holmes St., Kansas City, Mo.
FINARDI, E. V. (A)
44 Viale Vittorio Emanuele, Ber-
gamo, Italy.
FINN, J. J. (M)
580 Fifth Ave., New York, N. Y.
FISCH, L. B. (M)
526 West 26th St., New York, N. Y.
FISHER, A. (M )
570 Lexington Ave., New York,
N. Y.
FISHOFF, L. A. (^4)
142 Blvd. Versailles, Suresnes
(Seine), France.
FITZPATRICK, J. M. S. (A)
Kodak, Ltd., Wealdstone, Middle-
sex, England.
FLACK, F. (M)
M-G-M Studios Precision Machine
Shop, Culver City. Calif.
FLANAGAN, J. T. (M)
Tri-State Motion Picture Co., 620
Superior Ave., West, Cleveland,
Ohio.
FLANNAGAN, C. (F)
Electrical Research Products, Inc.,
250 West 57th St., New York,
N. Y.
FLEISCHER, M. (F)
Fleischer Studios, 1600 Broadway,
New York, N. Y.
FLINT, A. (M)
8 Jochum Avenue, Larchmont, N. Y.
FLINT, A. B. (4)
31 Rathay St., Vic Park W., Aus-
tralia.
FLORY, L. P. (M)
Boyce-Thompson Institute, 1086 N.
Broadway, Yonkers, N. Y.
FOLEY, T. E. (A)
Box 682, Kelowna, B. C., Canada.
FOOTE, P. C. (A)
Bell & Howell Co., 4045 No. Rock-
well St., Chicago, 111.
FORD.W. B. (A)
3 Belmont House, Candover St.,
London, W. 1, England.
FOREMAN, S. (A)
5837 Gregory Ave., Hollywood,
Calif.
FORSYTH, S. L. (4)
100 Clay Avenue, Rochester, N. Y.
FOSTER, L. L. (A)
Capitol Theater Supply Co., 28
Piedmont St., Boston, Mass.
FOSTER, W. D. (F)
Kinatome Patents Corp., 45 North
Broad St., Ridgewood, N. J.
FOUNTAIN, A. (A)
Kings Theater, Gisborne, New Zea-
land.
FOURNIER, G. (A)
89 Notre Dame East, Montreal,
P.Q., Canada.
FOUTE, G. P. (A)
143 East 24th St., New York, N. Y.
FRACKER, E. G. (M)
Bell Telephone Laboratories, Inc.,
463 West St., New York,
N.Y.
FRANK, J., JR. (M)
RCA Manufacturing Co., Inc., Cam-
den, N. J.
FRANTZ, G. F. (A)
417 Ogden St., Denver, Colo.
FRASCH, H. H. (A)
4228 W. Normandy, Dallas, Texas.
FRAYNE, J. G. (F)
Electrical Research Products, Inc.,
7046 Hollywood Blvd., Los
Angeles, Calif.
FRAZIER, L. (^4)
713l/2 Keeler St., Boone, La.
FREEDMAN, A. E. (T7)
De Luxe Laboratories, Inc., 441-
461 West 55th St., New York,
N.Y.
FREEMAN, A. B. (4)
2425 N. 54th St., Philadelphia, Pa.
FREERICKS, B. (M)
8956 Dicks St., W. Hollywood,
Calif.
FREIMANN, F. (70
Electro Acoustic Products Co., 2131
Bueter Road, Fort Wayne, Ind.
Mar., 1936]
LIST OF MEMBERS
297
FRENCH, R. R. (Af)
40 West 97th St., New York, N. Y.
FREUND, K. (4)
12730 Hanover St., Los Angeles,
Calif.
FRIEDL, G., JR. (Af)
Electrical Research Products, Inc.,
250 W. 57th St., New York,
N. Y.
FRIEND, H. H. (Af)
Cinaudagraph Corp., 2109 43rd Ave.,
Long Island City, N. Y.
FRITTS, E. C. (F)
Eastman Kodak Co., 343 State St.,
Rochester, N. Y.
FUNATSU, H. K. (A)
P. O. Box 1194, Honolulu, Hawaii.
FUNK, J. J. (A)
1350 Elurdale Ave., Chicago, 111.
GAGE, H. P. (F)
Corning Glass Works, Corning, N. Y.
GAGE, O. A. (Af)
Corning Glass Works, Corning, N. Y.
GAGLIARDI, G. (4)
385 Pleasant Ave., Grantwood, N. J.
GALLO, R. (A)
Quigley Publications, 1790 Broad-
way, New York, N. Y.
GANSTROM, R. G. (4)
31117 Plymouth Road, R 2, Wayne,
Mich.
GARDINER, F. R. (A)
165 North High St., Columbus,
Ohio.
GARLING, W. F. (Af)
RCA Photophone Ltd., Electra
House, Victoria Embankment,
London, W. C. 2, England.
GASKI, T. J. (A)
26 Henry Ave., Palisade Park, N. J.
GATHERCOLE, J. (A)
16 Northolm Edgware, Middlesex,
England.
GATY, J. P. (A)
62-10 Woodside Ave., Woodside,
L. I., N. Y.
GAVER, E. M. (A)
Jam Handy Picture Service, 6227
Broadway, Chicago, 111.
GEIB, E. R. (F)
National Carbon Company, Inc.,
Box 6087, Cleveland, Ohio.
GELB, L. (A)
205 Beach 73rd St., Arverne, Queens,
N. Y.
GELMAN, J. N. (M)
c/o National Theater Supply Co.,
1637 Central Parkway, Cincinnati,
Ohio.
GENOCK, E. P. (4)
28 Dorset Road, Merton Park,
Surrey, S. W. 19, England.
GENT, E. W. (Af)
Bell Telephone Laboratories, Inc.,
463 West St., New York, N. Y.
GEORGE, H. H. (A)
1006 N. Elcentro Ave., Los Angeles,
Calif.
GEORGENS, G. R. (M)
3109 17th St., N. E., Washington,
D. C.
GERCKE, C. (A)
1421 East 28th St., Brooklyn, N. Y.
GERMAINE, M. (A)
1191 Coney Island Ave., Brooklyn,
N. Y.
GERMAN, W. J. (Af)
J. E. Brulatour, Inc., 154 Crescent
St., Long Island City, N. Y.
GERNOLLE, N. (A)
Paris Studio Cinema, 50 Quai Pont
du Jeur, Billancourt (Seine),
France.
GEYER, W. (M)
Am. Treptower Park 59, Berlin, So.
36, Germany.
GIBBONS, J. M. (A)
825 Nantasket Ave., Allerton, Mass.
GIBSON, G. H. (A)
J. E. Brulatour, Inc., 6700 Santa
Monica Blvd., Hollywood, Calif.
GIESKIENG, M. W. (4)
1704 Wyandotte St., Kansas City,
Missouri.
298
LIST OF MEMBERS
[J. S. M. p. E.
GIHBSSON, L. (A)
J. L. Nerlien, Ltd., Nedre Slotsgate
13, Oslo, Norway.
GILBERT, F. C. (M)
150 Penn Ave., Crestwood, N. Y.
GILES, R. H. (M)
3044 West 159th St., Cleveland,
Ohio.
GILL, K. (A)
Regent Theater, Te Aroha, New
Zealand.
GILLETTE, M. E. (M}
2832 Van Ness St., N. W., Washing-
ton, D. C.
GILMOUR, J. G. T. (A)
Visual Instruction Section, General
Electric Co., Schenectady, N. Y.
GILSDORF, W. R. (A)
2112 Payne Ave., Cleveland, Ohio.
GITHENS, A. S. (A)
623 N. Columbus Ave., Mount
Vernon, N. Y.
GLASSER, N. (M)
Warner Bros. Theaters, 932 F St.,
N. W., Washington, D. C.
GLAUBER, S. (4)
2062 East 37th St., Brooklyn, N. Y.
GLEASON, C. H. (A)
14 North Hancock St., Lexington,
Mass.
GLICKMAN, H. (M)
789 Saint Marks Ave., Brooklyn,
N. Y.
GLUNT, O. M. (F)
Bell Telephone Laboratories, Inc.,
463 West St., New York, N. Y.
GOEBEL, J. J. (A)
1375 Brooklyn Ave., Brooklyn,
N.Y.
GOGATE, G. G. (A)
169 Vincent Road, Dadar Bombay,
14, India.
GOLDEN, N. D. (A)
Motion Picture Section, Bureau of
Foreign and Domestic Commerce,
Dept. of Commerce, Washington,
D. C.
GOLDFARB, H. (M)
5255 Virginia St., Los Angeles,
Calif.
GOLDHAMER, S. A. (A)
1920 Bloor W., Apt. 11, Toronto,
Ontario, Canada.
GOLDIN, H. (A)
Northern Electric Co., Ltd., 1261
Shearer St., Montreal, P. Quebec,
Canada.
GOLDMAN, M. (A)
1417 Avenue K, Brooklyn, N. Y.
GOLDSCHNEIDER, G. (A)
United Research Corp., Burbank,
Calif.
GOLDSMITH, A. N. (F)
444 Madison Ave., New York, N. Y.
GOODMAN, A. (A)
Service Division, RCA Manufactur-
ing Co., Inc., Camden, N. J.
GOOKIN, F. M. (A)
22 Eddy St., N. Attleboro, Mass.
GORDON, I. (^4)
104 Bittman St., Akron, Ohio.
GOSHAW, I. R. (M)
c/o Warner Bros. Pictures, Inc.,
Burbank, Calif.
GOVE, K. G. (A)
P. O. Box 468, Scotch Plains, N. J.
GRAHAM, H. 04)
546 Lincoln St., Denver, Colo.
GRASS, R. L. (A)
1064 East 28th St., Brooklyn, N. Y.
GREEN, N. B. (F)
Eastman Kodak Co., Eng. Dept.,
Camera Wks., Rochester, N. Y.
GREEN, R. B. (A)
Moller Apartments, Hagerstown,
Maryland.
GREENE, C. L. (F)
2722 Harriet Ave., Minneapolis,
Minn.
GREENE, P. E. (A)
112 No. Munn Ave., East Orange,
N.J.
GREGORY, C. L. (A)
76 Echo Ave., New Rochelle, N. Y.
Mar., 193G]
LIST OF MEMBERS
299
GRIFFIN, H. (F)
International Projector Corp., -90
Gold St., New York, N. Y.
GRIFFITH, L. M. (M)
8000 Blackburn Ave., Los Angeles,
Calif.
GRIFFITHS, P. H. (M)
Briar Lea, NorbreckRd., Blackpool,
Lanes., England.
GRIGNON, F. J. (A)
1416 Troy Ave., Brooklyn, N. Y.
GROTE, W. G. (A)
Paramount Productions, Inc., 5451
Marathon St., Hollywood, Calif.
GROVER, H. G. (M)
570 Lexington Ave., New York, N. Y.
GROVES, I. R. (A}
34 Hobart Ave., Summit, N. J.
GRUSSING, H. (A)
1968 S. Vermont Ave., Los Angeles,
Calif.
GUERIN, B. C., JR. (A)
80 Love Lane, Shanghai, China.
GUERRERO, E. S. (Af)
433 1/2 N. Figueroa St., Los Angeles,
Calif.
GUINTINI, C. (A)
P. O. Box 411, Los Banos, Calif.
GUNDELFINGER, A. M. (M)
201 N. Occidental Blvd., Los Ange-
les, Calif.
GUPTA, D. K. (A)
41 Hazra Road, Calcutta, India.
GUTH, A. (A)
21311 Murdoch Ave., St. Albans,
Hollis, L. I., N. Y.
HACKEL, J. (M)
53 W. 57th St., New York, N. Y.
HAEFELE, N. C. (M)
417 St. Paul St., Baltimore, Md.
HALBERTSMA, N. A. (4)
Philips' Glowlampworks, Ltd., Eind-
hoven, Holland.
HALL, F. M. (M)
Bell & Howell Co., 11 West 42nd St.,
New York. N. Y.
HALPIN, D. D. (A)
19 West 44th St., New York, N. Y.
HAMILTON, D. W. (A)
362 Maxwell Road, Pollokshields,
Glasgow, Scotland.
HAMILTON, S. H. (A)
633 W. Murphy St., Lima, Ohio.
HAMILTON, V. P. (A)
Bell & Howell Company, 1801
Larchmont Ave., Chicago, 111.
HAMPTON, L. N. (M)
246 E. Tremont Ave., Bronx, N. Y.
HANDA, D. (A)
c/o S. R. Handa Roads Engineer,
Jaipur State, Rajputana, India.
HANDA, G. C. (A)
D. 96, Model Town, Lahore, Punjab,
India.
HANDLEY, C. W. (M)
1960 West 84th St., Los Angeles,
Calif.
HANNA, C. R. (F)
Westinghouse Elec. & Mfg. Co.,
East Pittsburgh, Pa.
HANNAN, J. H. (A)
P. O. Box 41, Golden, Colo.
HANSEN, E. H. (M)
6059 Santa Monica Blvd., Holly-
wood, Calif.
HARCUS, W. C. (M)
14410 Burbank Blvd., Van Nuys,
Calif.
HARDINA, E. (A)
Warner Bros. Pictures, Inc., 1277
East 14th St., Brooklyn, N. Y.
HARDING, H. V. (A)
186 Pinehurst Ave., New York, N. Y.
HARDMAN, W. F. (A)
St. Charles Hotel, Pierre, So.
Dakota.
HARDY, A. C. (F)
Mass. Inst. of Technology, Cam-
bridge, Mass.
HARLEY, J. B. (A)
Bell Telephone Laboratories, Inc.,
463 West St., New York, N. Y.
300
LIST OF MEMBERS
[J. S. M. p. E-
HARLOW, J. B. (M)
Electrical Research Products, Inc.,
250 West 57th St., New York,
N. Y.
HARPER, E. R. (M)
650 North Bronson Ave., Los
Angeles, Calif.
HARRINGTON, T. T. (M)
320 62nd St., Oakland, Calif.
HARRIS, C. E. (A)
108 Seaman Ave., Baldwin, N. Y.
HARRIS, E. (^4)
338 Walmer Road, Toronto, Ontario,
Canada.
HARRISON, H. C. (F)
94 Bayview Ave., Port Washington,
L. I., N. Y.
HART, K. R. M. (A)
P. N. Russell School of Eng., Uni-
versity of Sydney, N. S. W..
Australia.
HARUKI, S. (.F)
Fuji Photo Film Company, Nr.
Odahara, Kanaga waken, Japan.
HARVEY, A. E. (A)
Harvey Amusement Co., Newman,
Calif.
HAYTHORNE, R. N. 04)
The National Archives, Washington,
D. C.
HEACOCK, F. C. (A)
434 N. Parkman Ave., Los Angeles,
Calif.
HECK, F. P. (M)
Da-Lite Screen Co., Inc., 2723 N.
Crawford Ave., Chicago, 111.
HEIDEGGER, H. F. (A)
1158 Schenectady Ave., Brooklyn,
N. Y.
HELBLING, W. E. (A)
Western Electric Co. Orient, Ltd.,
P. O. Box 234, Tokyo, Japan.
HELLO WELL, T. (A)
50 Clyde St., Bondi North, Sydney,
N. S. W., Australia.
HENABERY, J. E. (A)
8310 35th Ave., Jackson Heights,
L. I., N. Y.
HENEY, J. E. (M)
127 Centennial Ave., Cranford, N. J.
HENKEL, J. F. (A)
53-06 70th St., Maspeth, N. Y.
HENNESSY, W. W. (A)
250 Mamaroneck Ave., White Plains,
N. Y.
HENSMAN, H. G. (A)
3025 Cardiff Ave., Los Angeles,
Calif.
HERRIOTT, W. (A)
Bell Telephone Laboratories, Inc.,
463 West St., New York, N. Y.
HERTNER, J. H. (M)
12690 Elmwood Ave., Cleveland,
Ohio.
HESS, H. P. (A)
5 Klusstr., Zurich 7, Switzerland.
HEWSON, J. H. (A)
478 Sunnyside Ave., Ottawa,
Canada.
HIATT, A. (M)
Pathe News, Inc., 35 West 45th St.,
New York, N. Y.
HICKMAN, C. N. (A)
35-36 79th St., Jackson Heights,
L. I., N. Y.
HICKMAN, K. (F)
Eastman Kodak Co., Kodak Park,
Rochester, N. Y.
HIGGINS, T. G. (A)
69 Gouett St., Randwick, Sydney,
Australia.
HILL, M. H. (A)
Butler's, Inc., 415 Market St.,
Wilmington, Del.
HIRASAWA, I. (A)
86 Takabancho Meguro-Ku, Tokyo,
Japan.
HIRZEL, A. (A)
2011 Bancroft Parkway, Wilming-
ton, Del.
HOAD, T. C. (A)
118 Beresford Ave., Toronto, On-
tario, Canada.
HOCH, W. C. (A)
1030 Monument St., Pacific Pali-
sades, Calif.
Mar., 1936]
LIST OF MEMBERS
301
HOCHHEIMER, R. (M)
65 West 95th St., New York, N. Y.
HODGSON, W. (A)
Regent Theater, Wairoa, Hawke's
Bay, New Zealand.
HOFFMAN, L. B. (M)
Mitchell Camera Corp., 665 N.
Robertson Blvd., W. Hollywood,
Calif.
HOGE, F. D\ (F)
Bell Telephone Laboratories, Inc.,
463 West St., New York, N. Y.
HOHMEISTER, F. (A)
1166 Alicia Ave., West Englewood,
N.J.
HOLDEN, H. C. (M)
c/o Leo Eiserman, Grandview Ave.,
Fairfield, Conn.
HOLLANDER, H. (M)
Hotel Alexander, 250 West 103rd
St., New York, N. Y.
HOLMAN, A. J. (M)
57 North 22nd St., East Orange,
N.J.
HOLSLAG, R. C. (M)
120 West 228th St., New York,
N. Y.
HOPKINS, J. J. (M)
29-41 167th St., Flushing, L. I.,
N. Y.
HOPKINS, T. L. (A)
929 Randolph St., N. W., Apt. 2,
Washington, D. C.
HOPPIN, C. (A)
145 Bis Rue D'Alesia, Paris, 14,
France.
HORNIDGE, H. T. (M)
Kiddle Margeson & Hornidge, 36
West 44th St., New York, N. Y.
HORNSTEIN, J. C. (M}
630 Ninth Ave., New York, N. Y.
HORSTMAN, C. F. (M)
Radio-Keith-Orpheum Corp., 1560
Broadway, New York, N. Y.
HOTCHKISS, F. H. (M)
Societe de Materiel Acoustique,
1 Blvd. Haussmann, Paris, France.
HOWELL, A. S. (F)
Bell & Howell Co., 4045 N. Rockwell
St., Chicago, 111.
Hsu, S. F. (A)
Star Motion Picture Co., Ltd., 744
Rue Bourgeat, Shanghai, China.
HUBBARD, B. J. (M)
340 Westmont Ave., Westmont,
N.J.
HUBBARD, R. C. (F)
669 So. 5th Ave., Mount Vernon,
N. Y.
HUDSON, G. (A)
Ilford Limited, Selo Works, Brent-
wood, Essex, England.
HUDSON, W. (A)
2165 So. 83rd St., West Allis, Wis.
HULAN, A. G. (A)
5607 Merrimac Ave.. Dallas, Texas.
HUMPHREY, G. H. (A)
Adcraft Film Co., 1312 Oswego St.,
Utica, N. Y.
HUNT, F. L. (F)
Bell Telephone Laboratories, Inc.,
463 West St., New York, N. Y.
HUNT, H. H. (A)
2312 Cass St., Detroit, Mich.
HUSE, E. (F)
Eastman Kodak Co., 6706 Santa
Monica Blvd., Hollywood, Calif.
HYNDMAN, D. E. (F)
Eastman Kodak Co., 350 Madison
Ave., New York, N. Y.
INGMAN, T. M. (M)
6100 Glen Oaks, Hollywood, Calif.
IRBY, F. S. (M)
151 E. 83rd St., New York, N. Y.
IVES, F. E. (H)
1753 No. 15th St., Philadelphia, Pa.
IVINS, C. F. (A)
Pathescope Co. of America, Inc.,
33 West 42nd St., New York,
N. Y.
IWAO, W. F. (A)
P. O. Box 386, Waipahu, Oahu, Ter.
Hawaii.
302
LIST OF MEMBERS
[J. S. M. P. E
JACHONTOW, E. G. (M)
Karpovka 19, Apt. 41, Leningrad,
22, U. S. S. R.
JADAV, B. V. (A)
Motion Picture Society of India,
Kitab Mahal, 192 Hornby Road,
Fort Bombay, India.
JAMES, F. E. (M)
General Electric Co., 5201 Sante Fe
Ave., Los Angeles, Calif.
JAMIESON, H. V. (M)
2212 Line Oak Co., Dallas, Texas.
JARRETT, G. J. (M)
Metropolitan Motion Picture Co.,
1745 Grand Blvd., E., Detroit,
Mich.
JAY, R. L. (M)
Jay's Film Service, 17 Blythswood
Square, Glasgow, C. 2, Scotland.
JECKELL, W. H. R. (A)
805 Davenport Rd., Toronto, On-
tario, Canada.
JEFFERY, F. A. (^4)
9 Giles St., Toorak, Adelaide, So.
Australia.
JENNINGS, D.V. (A)
Company B, 17th Infantry, Fort
Crook, Nebr.
JERMAIN, H. F. (M)
130 Johnson Ave., Teaneek, N. J.
JOACHIM, H. E. A. (M}
Zeiss-Ikon A. G., Schandauerstr. 76,
Dresden, A. 21, Germany.
JOHN, W. E. (M)
Standard Bank of S. A. Ltd., North-
umberland Ave., London, W. C. 1,
England.
JOHNSON, B. W. (A)
45-11 43rd Ave., Apt. 3-C, Long
Island City, N. Y.
JONES, J. G. (F)
Eastman Kodak Co., Kodak Park,
Rochester, N. Y.
JONES, L. (A)
106-28 95th St., Ozone Park, L. L,
N. Y.
JONES, L. A. (F)
Research Laboratory, Eastman Ko-
dak Co., Rochester, N. Y.
JONES, L. G. (A)
4l2l/2 Willaman Drive, Los Angeles,
Calif.
JOY, D. B. (F)
National Carbon Co., Inc., Fostoria,
Ohio.
JOY, J. M. (M}
12 Fairview Ave., Nepperhan
Heights, Yonkers, N. Y.
JUDGE, P. E. (A)
22 Fay Avenue, Peabody, Mass.
KALLMAN, K. (A)
229 West 20th St., New York, N. Y.
KALMUS, H. T. (F)
Drawer B, Hollywood, Calif.
KAMEI, K. (A)
396-2 Miyananoue Morigu, Nishi-
nomiya-City, Japan.
KANO, J. H. (A)
1495 Araiziku Omori-Ku 2, Tyome,
Tokyo, Japan.
KAPLAN, L. ( M)
Panama Canal Dept., Motion Pic-
ture Service, Quarry Heights,
Canal Zone.
KARATZ, T. (M)
38 Glenwood Ave., Minneapolis,
Minn.
KASAI, K. (A]
7, Matsueda-cho, Kanda-ku, Tokio,
Japan.
KAYE, L. K. (A)
Vernon House, Park Place, St.
James St., London, S. W. 1, Eng-
land.
KEITH, C. R. (M)
Electrical Research Products, Inc.,
250 W. 57th St., New York, N. Y.
KELBER, M. (A)
5 Ave. du Colonel Bonnet, Paris,
16e, France.
KELLER, A. C. (4)
Bell Telephone Laboratories, Inc.,
463 West St., New York, N. Y.
Mar., 1936]
LIST OF MEMBERS
303
KELLEY, J. H. (A)
223 West 18th St., Kansas City,
Mo.
KELLOGG, E. W. (A)
RCA Manufacturing Co., Inc., Cam-
den, N. J.
KENDE, G. (M)
210 Sixth Ave., New York, N. Y.
KERKOW, H. (A}
270 Riverside Drive, New York,
N. Y.
KERMAN, E. W. (A)
1477 Cory Drive, Dayton, Ohio.
KERRIN, J. A. (4)
138 Deloraine Ave., Toronto, On-
tario, Canada.
KERSHAW, C. (F)
A. Kershaw & Son, 200 Harehills
Lane, Leeds, England.
KERST, W. D. (A}
Bell & Howell Co., 11 West 42nd St.,
New York, N. Y.
KEUFFEL, C. W. (Jlf)
Keuffel & Esser Co., 3rd & Adams
St., Hoboken, N. J.
KlENNINGER, J. F. (Jlf)
Drawer B, Hollywood, Calif.
KILTON, G. C. (A]
901 Hamlin St., N. E., Washington,
D. C.
KlMBALL, H. R. (M)
3847 Goldwyn Terrace, Culver City,
Calif.
KlMBERLEY, P. (M)
National Screen Service, Ltd., 25
Denmark St., W. C. 2, London,
England.
KING, H. V. (A)
British Lion Studios, Beaconsfield,
Bucks, England.
KING, P. A. (A)
Box 117, Irondale, Ala.
KING, R. P. (A)
1059 Finan St., Honolulu, T. Hawaii.
KING, T. P. (A)
280 Martenze St., Brooklyn, N. Y.
KLAUSSEN, B. (A}
332 Stratford Road, Brooklyn, N. Y.
KLEBER, J. O. (M)
15 West 16th St., New York, N. Y.
KLEERUP, B. J. (M}
Society for Visual Education, 327 S.
La Salle St., Chicago, 111.
KNOX, H. G. (F)
Electrical Research Products Corp.,
250 West 57th St., New York,
N.Y.
Kocsis, P. (A)
74 Van Cortlandt Park, S., Bronx,
N.Y.
KOHLER, J. J. (A)
4542 44th St., Sunnyside, L. I.,
N.Y.
KONDO, T. (A)
951 Zoshigaya Cho 7 Chome,
Toshima-Ku, Tokyo, Japan.
KOSSMAN, H. R. (A)
Andre Debrie, Inc., 115 West 45th
St., New York, N. Y.
KOTTE, J. J. (A)
Philips' Glowlampworks, Cinema
Dept., Eindhoven, Holland.
KRAEMER, G 1. (M)
16 Rue de Chateaudun, Asnieres,
Seine, France.
KRASNA-KRAUS, A. (M)
Filmtechnik, Friedrichstrasse 46,
Berlin, S. W. 68, Germany.
KREHLEY, G. A. (4)
4 B 4 Palisades Towers, Palisades
Park, N. J.
KREUZER, B. (M)
RCA Manufacturing Co., Inc., 411
Fifth Ave., New York, N. Y.
KRUGERS, G. E. A. (M)
P. O. Box 817, Hong Kong, China.
KRUSE, W. F. (A)
1820 Eye St., N. W., Washington,
D. C.
KUNZMANN, W. C. (F)
National Carbon Co., Inc., Box 6087,
Cleveland, Ohio.
KURLANDER, J. H. (F)
283 Hillside Ave., Nutley, N. J.
KURTZ, J. A. (A)
97 Brooklyn Ave., Brooklyn, N. Y.
304
LIST OF MEMBERS
[J. S. M. P. E.
LACHAPELLE, L. (M)
Consolidated Amusement Co., Ltd.,
P. O. Box 2425, Honolulu, Hawaii.
LAIR, C. (M)
Kodak-Pathe, 30 Rue des Vignerons,
Vincennes, France.
LAKEWITZ, F. S. (4)
3360 154th St., Flushing, L. L, N. Y.
LAL, G. D. (M)
The Gramophone, Ltd., Civil Lines,
Delhi, India.
LAMB, E. E. (M)
Bell & Howell Co., 320 Regent St.,
London, W. 1, England.
LAMB, R. T. (A)
382 Summit Ave., Leonia, N. J.
LAMBERT, K. B. (F)
Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer Studios, Cul-
ver City, Calif.
LAN, W. S. (4)
1980 Ave. Joffre, Shanghai, China.
LANE, A. L. (M)
4205 La Salle Ave., Culver City,
Calif.
LANE, G. (M}
Audio Productions, Inc., 250 West
57th St., New York, N. Y.
LANE, W. H. (M)
189 Patterson Ave., Ottawa, On-
tario, Canada.
LANG, A. (A)
105 Arden St., New York, N. Y.
LANGFORD, L. P. (M)
11733 Edgewater Drive, Lake wood,
Ohio.
LANSING, D. W. (A}
RCA Manufacturing Co., Inc., Cam-
den, N. J.
LAPAT, E. P. (A)
1618 E. 15th St., Brooklyn, N. Y.
LAPORTE, N. M. (F)
Paramount Publix Corp., 1501
Broadway, New York, N. Y.
LARSEN, P. J. (F)
United Research Corp., Burbank,
Calif.
LARSON, I. J. (A)
420 Lowell St., Manchester, N. H.
LARUE, M. W. (A)
6157 N. Artesian Ave., Chicago, 111.
LAWLEY, H. V. (M)
The Lawley Apparatus Co., Ltd., 26
Church St., Charing X Road,
London, W. 1, England.
LAWRENCE, J. F. (A)
96 Ohio St., Rochester, N. Y.
LAWRENCE, T. (M)
23, Rue de Tournon Paris, 6, France.
LAY, M. W. (A)
The United Photoplay Services, Ltd.,
Passage No. 1980, Avenue Joffre,
House No. 1, Shanghai, China.
LEARN ARD, H. P. (4)
Consolidated Amusement Co., Hono-
lulu, Hawaii.
LECOQ, J. (.4)
116 Rue de la Convention, Paris,
15E, France.
LEE, A. A. (A)
Gaumont British Picture Corp. of
America, 1600 Broadway, New
York, N. Y.
LEISHMAN, E. D. (M)
Radio Keith Pictures, Ltd., P. O.
Box 454, Calcutta, India.
LENIGAN, T. E. (4)
160-15 7th Ave., Beechhurst, Long
Island, N. Y.
LENTZ, H. R. (A)
4502 Saturne St., Los Angeles, Calif.
LENZ, F. (A)
116-40 227th St., St. Albans, L. L,
N. Y.
LEROY, C. (A)
Hotel Belmont, East 40th & Euclid
Ave., Cleveland, Ohio.
LESHING, M. S. (F)
Fox Film Corp., 1401 N. Western
Ave., Hollywood, Calif.
LESLIE, F. (A)
33 Champs Elyesee, Paris, France.
LESTER, H. M. (A)
1 Pershing Square, New York, N. Y.
LEVENTHAL, J. F. (F)
175 Varick St., New York, N. Y.
Mar., 1936]
LIST OF MEMBERS
305
LEVINSON, N. (M)
1761 No. Van Ness Ave., Hollywood,
Calif.
LEWBEL, S. (A)
184 South King St., Honolulu,
Hawaii.
LEWIN, G. (M)
1573 E. 35th St., Brooklyn, N. J.
LEWIS, B. C. (A)
Northern Electric Co., 1261 Shearer
St., Montreal, Canada.
LEWIS, W. W. (A)
3030 Cabrillo St., San Francisco,
Calif.
LICHTE, H. (F)
Tautenburgerstr. 33, Berlin, Lank-
witz, Germany.
LlNDERMAN, ROBERT G. (M)
205 Edison Bldg., 5th and Grand
Aves., Los Angeles, Calif.
LINGG, A. (4)
c/o I. G. Farbenindustrie Aktien-
gesellschaft, Camerawerk, Tegern-
seerlandstr. 161, Munich, Ger-
many.
LINS, P. A. (M)
Madison Mart, Inc., 403 Madison
Ave., New York, N. Y.
LIPMAN, H. H. (M)
74 Van Braam St., Pittsburgh, Pa.
LITTLE, W. F. (F)
Electrical Testing Lab., 80th St. &
East End Ave., New York, N. Y.
LlVADARY, J. P. (4)
2028 Cahuenga Ave., Hollywood,
Calif.
LlVERMAN, C. (A)
9 Rue Paul Feval, Paris, France.
LOHR, J. F. (M)
Gyarmat U 52, Budapest, VII,
Hungary.
LOOTENS, C. L. (M}
933 Seward St., Hollywood, Calif.
LOTT, H. O. (A)
25-15 Ditmars Blvd., Long Island
City, N. Y.
LOY, L. C. (A)
2018 llth St., Detroit, Mich.
LUBAO, R. (A}
9 Grove St., W. Somerville, Mass.
LUCAS, G. S. C. (M)
British Thomson-Houston Co., Ltd.,
Rugby, England.
LUCID, F. J., JR. (A)
Paramount Productions, Inc., Holly-
wood, Calif.
LUDLAM, J. M. (A)
U. S. S. Whitney, San Diego, Calif.
LUKE, E. (M)
Kenton House, Upper Shirley Road,
Croydon, Surrey, England.
LUKES, S. A. (M)
6145 Glenwood Ave., Chicago, 111.
LUMIERE, L. (H)
156 Blvd. Bineau A. Neuilly, Paris,
France.
LUMMERZHEIM, H. J. (M)
I. G. Farbenindustrie Aktiengesell-
schaft, Berlin, S. O. 36, Germany.
LUNDAHL, T. (M)
253 Cumberland St., Brooklyn, N. Y.
LUNDIE, E. S. (.4)
c/o The Vitaphone Corp., 1277 E.
14th St., Brooklyn, N. Y.
LUTTER, H. (A)
59 Peck Avenue, Newark, N. J.
LYON, L. H. (A)
c/o Atlas Powder Co., Wilmington,
Del.
MAAS, A. R. (A)
A. R. Mass Chemical Co., 308 E.
Eighth St., Los Angeles, Calif.
MACDONALD, A. F. (A)
9 Seventh Ave., Haddon Heights,
N.J.
MACILVAIN, K. H. (A)
41 Nassau Ave., Malverne, L. I.,
N. Y.
MACLEOD, J. S. (M)
Metro - Goldwyn - Mayer Pictures,
1540 Broadway, New York, N. Y.
MACLEOD, K. A. (A)
933 Heliotrope Drive, Hollywood,
Calif.
306
LIST OF MEMBERS
[J. S. M. P. E.
MACNAIR, W. A. (F)
Bell Telephone Laboratories, Inc.,
463 West St., New York, N. Y.
MACOMBER, W. W. (A)
Box 3304, Chicago, 111.
MAIRE, H. J. (M}
5640 Kingsessing Ave., Philadelphia,
Pa.
MALHTRA, M. N. (A)
Jai Krishanian St., Machhi Hatta
Bazar, Lahore, India.
MANCHEE, A. W. (M)
91 Prospect St., East Orange, N. J.
MANHEIMER, J. R. (M)
E-J Elec. Installation Co., 227 East
45th St., New York, N. Y.
MANN, R. G. (A)
Pathe News, 35 West 45th St., New
York, N. Y.
MANPOH, K. (-4)
c/o J. O. Studio, Ltd., Uzumassa,
Kyoto, Japan.
MAR, S. T. (A)
73/245 Rue Bourgeat, Shanghai,
China.
MARCHESSAULD, C. E. (4)
151-22 85 Drive, Jamaica, L. I.,
N. Y.
MARESCHAL, G. (A)
30 Rue de la Garenne Sevres, Seine
et Oise, France.
MARETTE, J. (F)
Pathe Cinema, 8 Rue Leconte de
Lisle, Paris, France.
MARGOSSIAN, M. (A)
2837 Minna Ave., Oakland, Calif.
MARKS, L. (^4)
Independent Theater Supply Co.,
354 West 44th St., New York,
N. Y.
MARSH, H. N. (A)
Technical Division, Hercules Powder
Co., Wilmington, Del.
MARSHALL, F. R. (A)
109 Gates Ave., Brooklyn, N. Y.
MASAOKA, K. (A)
82 Shimokamotakagicho Sakyoku,
Kyoto, Japan.
MASON, C. (A)
702 Bloomfield Ave., Nutley, N. J.
MASTER, R. P. (A)
312 W. 34th St.. New York, N. Y.
MASUTANI, R. (A)
Kinutamura Kitatamagun, Tokyo,
Prefecture, Japan.
MATHEWSON, E. G. (.4)
141 Fourth St., New Toronto, On-
tario, Canada.
MATHOT, J. A. (M)
Eclair Tirage, 34A 42 Av. d'Enghein,
Epinay Sur Seine, Seine, France.
MATHUR, R. D. (A)
c/o Gauri Daval, Ganesh Flour Mills
Co., Ltd., Lyallpur, India.
MATSUZAWA, M. (A)
5-848 Kitazawa Setagayaku, Tokyo,
Japan.
MATTESON, N. (A)
U. S. Army Motion Picture Service,
Bldg. 3, 2nd & Arsenal Sts., St.
Louis, Mo.
MATTHEWS, B. (A)
1449 N. Spaulding Ave., Chicago,
111.
MATTHEWS, G. E. (F)
Research Laboratory, Eastman Ko-
dak Co., Rochester, N. Y.
MAURAN, J. (A)
537 Statler Bldg., Boston, Mass.
MAURER, J. A. (A)
320 West 83rd St., New York, N. Y.
McAuLEY, J. E. (F)
554 W. Adams St., Chicago, 111.
MCBURNEY, J. W. (M)
41 Floral Avenue, Binghamton,
N. Y.
McCLINTOCK, N. (A)
144 7th Ave., Highland Park, New
Brunswick, N. J.
MCCLELLAND, T. H. (A)
137 Rawdon St., Brantford, Ontario,
Canada.
McCoRD, C. T. (A)
187 Madeira Ave., Chillicothe, Ohio.
Mar., 1936]
LIST OF MEMBERS
307
MCCROSKEY, H. E. (M)
5451 Marathon St., Hollywood,
Calif.
McCULLOUGH, R. (F)
1833 S. Vermont Ave., Los Angeles,
Calif.
MCDOWELL, J. B. (A)
Agfa, Ltd., 1-4 Lawrence St., High
Street, London, W. C. 2, England.
McGiNNis, F. J. (A)
Box 2387, Palm Beach, Fla.
MCGLINNEN, E. J. (A)
Fox Theater, Detroit, Mich.
McGuiRE, J. (A)
398 Huron Ave., Ottawa, Ontario,
Canada.
McGuiRE, P. A. (F)
International Projector Corp., 90
Gold St., New York, N. Y.
McKEE, T. A. (A)
1518 Wilder Ave., Honolulu, Hawaii.
MCKINNEY, H. J. (A)
National Theater Supply Co., 211
Columbus Ave., Boston, Mass.
MCLARTY, H. D. (A)
145 Kinsey Ave., Kenmore, N. Y.
MC.LEMORE, J. R. (A)
828 Gates Ave., Norfolk, Va.
McMASTER, D. (F)
Kodak, Ltd., Wealdstone, Middle-
sex, England.
McMATH, R. R. (M)
Motors Metal Mfg. Co., 5936 Mil-
ford Ave., Detroit, Mich.
McNABB, J. H. (F)
Bell & Howell Co., 1801 Larchmont
Ave., Chicago, 111.
McNAMARA, D. T. (A)
7 Baker Ave., East Lexington, Mass.
McRAE, D. (10
99 Melrose St., Melrose, Mass.
MECHAU, E. (F)
Albrechtstrasse, 60A, Berlin, Su-
dende, Germany.
MEES, C. E. K. (F)
Eastman Kodak Co., Kodak Park,
Rochester, N. Y.
MEHTA, H. S. (M)
c/o Dr. Deshmukh Lane, Third
Floor, Lilawati Terrace, Bombay,
4, India.
MELVILLE, W. (A)
General Delivery, Los Angeles, Calif.
MESSITER, H. M. (A)
P. O. Box 165, Scarsdale, N. Y.
METZGER, M. (4)
Associated Screen News, Ltd.,
Western Ave. & Delcarie Blvd.,
Montreal, Quebec, Canada.
MEYER, H. (F}
6372 Santa Monica Blvd., Holly-
wood, Calif.
MIEHLING, R. (M}
1788 Amsterdam Ave., New York,
N. Y.
MILI, G. (A)
Westinghouse Lamp Co., Bloomfield,
N.J.
MILLER, A. J. (M)
1460 Jefferson St., West Englewood,
N.J.
MILLER, A. W. (A)
47 Westfield Ave., E., Roselle Park,
N.J.
MILLER, J. A. (F)
46-27 193rd St., Flushing, L. I..
N. Y.
MILLER, O. E. (A)
452 Electric Ave., Rochester, N. Y.
MILLER, R. (A)
1045 S. Liberty St., Salem, Oregon.
MILLER, R. A. (M)
Bell Telephone Laboratories, Inc.,
463 West St., New York, N. Y.
MILLER, R. L. (A}
7635 Grand River Ave., Detroit,
Mich.
MILLER, R. P. (4)
926 Cordova St., Burbank, Calif.
MILLER, V. E. (A)
1247 N. Detroit St., Hollywood,
Calif.
MILLER, W. C. (F)
Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, Culver City,
Calif.
308
LIST OF MEMBERS
[J. S. M. P. E.
MlNNERLY, N. H. (A)
158-03 Sanford Ave., Flushing,
N. Y.
MINO, T. J. (A)
c/o M. Numoto, 1063 Yukigaya Cho,
Omori Ku, Tokyo, Japan.
MISENER, G. C. (M)
100 Beverley Heights, Rochester,
N. Y.
MISTRY, D. L. (M)
24 Nepean Road, Malabar Hill,
Bombay, 6, India.
MISTRY, M. L. (M)
24 Nepean Road, Malabar Hill,
Bombay, 6, India.
MITCHELL, G. A. (F)
666 No. Robertson Blvd., West
Hollywood, Calif.
MITCHELL, G. S. (M}
Academy of Motion Picture Arts &
Sciences, Suite 1201, Taft Bldg.,
Hollywood, Calif.
MITCHELL, M. N. (^4)
116 1st Street, Rochester, N. Y.
MITCHELL, R. F. (F)
4230 N. Winchester Ave., Chicago,
111.
MOLE, P. (F)
Mole-Richardson, Inc., 941 North
Sycamore Ave., Hollywood, Calif.
MOLS, P. M. (4)
10564 Bradbury Road, Los Angeles,
Calif.
MONKS, C. H. (,4)
Pitts Bay Road, Bermuda.
MOORE, T. (M)
The Westchester, Washington, D. C.
MORENO, R. M. (M)
Dupont Film Mfg. Corp., Parlin,
N.J.
MORGAN, K. F. (F)
Electrical Research Products, Inc.,
7046 Hollywood Blvd., Los
Angeles, Calif.
MORRAL, F. R. (A)
Provenza 361, Barcelona, Spain.
MORRIS, L. P. (A)
1532 West 4th St., Marion, Ind.
MORTON, T. (4)
Kodak, Ltd., Postafiok 146, Buda-
pest, IV, Hungary.
MOSKOWITZ, J. H. (A)
Amusement Supply Co., 341 West
44th St., New York, N. Y.
MOTWANE, V. G. (M)
192 Hornby Road, Fort, P. O. Box
459, Bombay, India.
MOYSE, H. W. (F)
Smith & Aller, Ltd., 6656 Santa
Monica Blvd., Hollywood, Calif.
MUELLER, E. (A)
Hofzeili 14, Vienna, 19, Austria.
MUELLER, W. A. (M)
5011 No. Ambrose Ave., Hollywood,,
Calif.
MULLER, C. (A)
87-60 113th St., Richmond Hill,
L. I., N. Y.
MULLER, J. P. (M)
3425 Locust St., Kansas City,
Mo.
MURDOCH, S. E. (A}
3 Cabramatta Rd., Mosman, Syd-
ney, N. S. W., Australia.
MURPHY, G. D. (A)
R. F. D. No. 3, Rockville, Md.
MURRAY, A. P. (4)
1702 Centre St., West Roxbury,
Mass.
MYERS, W. D. (A)
P. O. Box 703, Wheeling, W. Va.
NADELL, A. (M)
494 Hendrix St., Brooklyn, N. Y.
NAGASE, T. (M)
D. Nagase & Co., Ltd., 7 Itachibori-
Minamidori-Nishiku, 1 Chome,
Osaka, Japan.
NARBUT, L. A. (A).
555 Pleasant St., Norwood, Mass.
NARIAN, S. (A)
East India Importing Co., 230 Fifth
Ave., New York, N. Y.
NATAN, B. I. (A)
6 Rue Francoeur, Paris, France.
Mar., 1936]
LIST OF MEMBERS
309
NEILL, C. B. (A)
724 Roselawn Ave., S. Hills, Pitts-
burgh, Pa.
NELSON, E. W. (A)
3910 Wellington Ave., Chicago, 111.
NELSON, O. (M)
National Cash Register Co., Dayton,
Ohio.
NEU, O. F. (M)
Neumade Products Corp., 442 West
42nd St., New York, N. Y.
NICHOLIDES, E. C. (A)
Sonotone Corporation, 19 West 44th
St., New York, N. Y.
NICHOLSON, R. F. (F)
Phi Gamma Delta Club, 106 West
56th St., New York, N. Y.
NlCKOLAUS, J. M. (F)
Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer Studios, Cul-
ver City, Calif.
NIELSEN, J. F. (4)
United Research Corp.. Burbank,
Calif.
NIEMANN, H. P. (A)
American Askania Corp., 1603 So.
Michigan Ave., Chicago, 111.
NIEPMANN, C. H. (M)
Kandem Electrical Ltd., 711 Fulham
Road, London, S. W. 6, England.
NIGAM, C. S. (A)
East India Film Co., Regent Park
Tollygunge, Calcutta, India.
NIVISON, W. S. (A)
410 West 24th St., New York, N. Y.
NIXON, I. L. (F)
Bausch & Lomb Optical Co., Roches-
ter, N. Y.
NORLING, J. A. (M)
Loucks & Norling, 245 West 55th
St., New York, N. Y.
NORRISH, B. E. (M)
5155 Western Ave., Montreal, Que-
bec, Canada.
NORTON, R. (4)
2013 No. 63rd St., Philadelphia, Pa.
NORWOOD, D. W. (M)
Chanute Field, Rantoul, 111.
OAKLEY, N. F. (M)
Dupont Film Mfg. Corp., Parlin
N.J.
O'BOLGER, R. E. (M)
Eastman Kodak Co., 24 Yuen Ming
Yuen Road, Shanghai, China.
O'BRIEN, B. C. (A)
10 Fairview Heights, Rochester,
N. Y.
O'BRIEN, M. D. (A)
417 Park Ave., Merrick, N. Y.
OHTA, V. (A)
1 Tsukudocho Ushigomeku, Tokyo,
Japan.
O'KEEFE, G. A. (A)
404 East 55th St.. New York. N. Y.
OLDHAM, C. (A)
11 Russell Road, Norwich, Conn.
O'LEARY, J. S. (A)
69 Greenfield Ave., Ardmore, Pa.
OLIVER, W. J. (A)
328A 8th Ave., West Calgary, Al-
berta, Canada.
OLLINGER, C. G. (4)
1810 Clark Bldg., Pittsburgh, Pa.
OLMSTEAD, L. B. (A)
United Research Corp., Burbank,
Calif.
OLSON, O. E. (A)
Local 164 IATSE, 344 Commerce
Bldg., Milwaukee, Wis.
ORAM, E. (A)
51 Lawrence Gardens, Mill Hill,
N. W. 7, London, England.
ORBAN, R. F. (M)
Bucaresti, Str. Nic. Balcescu, 2-IV,
Roumania.
OSAWA, Y. (M)
J. Osawa & Co., Ltd.. Sanjo Kobashi,
Kyoto, Japan.
OSBORNE, A. W. (M}
"Hilton" North Drive, Ruislip,
Middlesex, England.
OSMAN, D. E. (A)
46 Whitchurch Gardens, Edgware,
Middlesex, England.
310
LIST OF MEMBERS
U. S. M. p. E.
OSTER, E. (A)
Columbia Pictures Corp., 1433
Gower St., Camera Dept., Holly-
wood, Calif.
OSWALD, C. G. (A)
149 East 36th St., New York, N. Y.
OWENS, F. H. (A)
2647 Broadway, New York, N. Y.
OWNBY, L. C. (A)
121 Goldengate Ave., San Francisco,
Calif.
PACENT, L. G. (F)
Pacent Engineering Corp., 79 Madi-
son Ave., New York, N. Y.
PACHOLKE, F. (A)
508 Winthrop Ave., Jackson, Mich.
PADEN, C. B. 04)
146 Leaven worth St., San Francisco,
Calif.
PALMER, M. W. (M)
468 Riverside Drive, New York,
N. Y.
PARKINS, C. F. (M)
Studio Film Laboratories, Ltd., 80
Wardour St., London, W. 1,
England.
PARLEY, W. C. (A)
RCA Photophone, Ltd., 57 Charles
St., Cardiff, Wales.
PARRIS, R. C. (A)
Pocasset, Mass.
PARRISH, H, C. (A)
State Shopping Block, Market St.,
4th Floor, Sydney, N. S. W.,
Australia.
PARSHLEY, C. W. (A)
University Theater, Cambridge,
Mass.
PATEL, K. K. (A)
1598 Raipur Zadken, St. Ahmedabad,
India.
PATEL, M. B. (A)
Krishna & Gujrat Studios, 162
DadarRd., Dadar, Bombay, India.
PATTON, G. E. (M}
51 Eastbourne Ave., Toronto, On-
tario, Canada.
PAULINI, E. T. (A)
2471 University Ave., Bronx, N. Y.
PECK, W. H. (A)
51 Vesey St., New York, N. Y.
PERRY, C. (4)
P. O. Box 351, Manila, Phillipine
Islands.
PERRY, H. D. (A)
870 Broad St., Newark, N. J.
PERSE, I. S. (A)
Capitol Motion Picture Supply
Corp., 630 Ninth Ave., New York,
N. Y.
PETERSON, F. W. (M)
c/o I. G. Farbenindustrie Aktien-
gesellschaft Kinetechnische Abteil-
ung, Berlin, S. O. 36, Germany.
PETTERS, W. K. (A)
3820 Benton St., N. W., Washing-
ton, D. C.
PFANNENSTIEHL, H. (M)
Bell Telephone Laboratories, Inc.,
463 West St., New York, N. Y.
PFEIFF, C. (If)
131-55 229th St., Laurelton, L. I.,
N. Y
PHATAK, R. K. (A)
c/o V. N. Ambdekar, 14 Ghatks-
parwata's Bldg., Mugbhat Gir-
gaon, Bombay, India.
PHELPS, L. G. (M)
Phelps-Films, Inc., 27 Harmon St.,
New Haven, Conn.
PHILIPP, J. F. (A)
Crosene Corporation, 52 Vanderbilt
Ave., New York, N. Y.
PHILLIPS, J. H., JR. (A)
1455 Gordon St., Hollywood, Calif.
PHILLIPPS, L. C. (F)
Hotel President, 907 West 2nd St.,
Los Angeles, Calif.
PINTO, O. D. (A)
Caixa Postal 3296, Rio de Janeiro,
Brazil.
PIROVANO, L. (A)
219 Harvard St., Brookline, Mass.
Mar., 1936]
LIST OF MEMBERS
311
PLANSKOY, L. (M)
c/o Dr. Silverman, 142 Camden
Road, London, N. W. 1, England.
POHL, W. E. (4)
Drawer B, Hollywood, Calif.
PONDE, D. B. (A)
Roerich Museum, Room 605, 103rd
St. & Riverside Drive, New York,
N. Y.
PONTIUS, R. B. (A)
Jesus College, Oxford, England.
POOLE, G. F. (A)
30 McCullough St., Pollocshields,
Glasgow, Scotland.
POPOVICI, G. G. (M)
2975 Marion Ave., Bronx, N. Y.
PORTER, G. C. (A)
Box 1, Wortendyke, N. J.
PORTER, L. C. (F}
General Electric Co., Engineering
Dept., Nela Park, Cleveland,
Ohio.
PRATT, J. A. (A)
Room 932, Earle Bldg., Washington,
D. C.
PRAUTSCH, J. H. (A)
Technicolor Motion Picture Corp.,
823 N. Seward St., Hollywood,
Calif.
PREDDEY, W. A. (A)
187 Golden Gate Ave., San Fran-
cisco, Calif.
PRESGRAVE, C. (A )
P. O. Box 4372, Chestnut Hill,
Philadelphia, Pa.
PRESIDENT, THE (H)
Royal Photographic Society, 35
Russel Square, London, W. C. 1,
England.
PRESIDENT, THE (H)
Societe Francaise de Photographic,
Rue de Clichy 51, Paris, 9 erne,
France.
PRESIDENT, THE (IF)
Deutsche Kinotechnische, Gesell-
schaft, Stallschreiberstr. 33, Hog-
gachtungsvoll, Berlin, S. W. 19,
Germany.
PRICE, A. F. (M)
Bell Telephone Laboratories, Inc.,
463 West St., New York, N. Y.
PRICE, G. W. (A)
2406 Montclair Ave., Cleveland,
Ohio.
PRILIK, M. R. (4)
2007 Davidson Ave., Bronx, N. Y.
PRINCE, L. S. (4)
261 Seaman Ave., New York, N. Y.
Pu, M. N. (A)
Burmese Favourite Co., 51 Sule
Pagoda Road, Rangoon, Burma,
India.
PULLER, G. (4)
32 Park Ave., Port Washington,
L. L, N. Y.
QUICK, C. J. (M)
49 Vaughan St., Ottawa, Ontario,
Canada.
QUINLAN, W. (M}
Fox Film Corp., 1401 Northwestern
Ave., Hollywood, Calif.
RABINOWITZ, D. J. (A)
M. Rabinowitz & Sons, Inc., 1373
Sixth Ave., New York, N. Y.
RACKETT, G. F. (F)
Drawer B, Hollywood Station,
Hollywood, Calif.
RAMSAYE, T. (F)
Motion Picture Herald, 1790 Broad-
way, New York, N. Y.
RAMSEY, R. W. (A)
Carolina Hotel, Winston-Salem,
N. C.
RANKIN, J. D. (A)
Tarkio, Missouri.
RASMUSSEN, R. T. (M)
Beaded Screen Corp., Roosevelt,
N. Y.
RAVEN, A. L. (M)
Raven Screen Corp., 147 East 24th
St., New York, N. Y.
RAY, M. (A)
1906 Avenue M, Brooklyn, N. Y.
312
LIST OF MEMBERS
[J. S. M. p. E.
RAY, R. H. (If)
Ray-Bell Films, Inc., 2267 Ford Rd.,
St. Paul, Minn.
RAYTON, W. B. (F)
Bausch & Lomb Optical Co., Roches-
ter, N. Y.
READ, E. A. (A)
1128 Clarendon Ave., N. W., Canton,
Ohio.
REEB, O. G. L. (M)
Berlin, 0. 17, Rotherstr., 20-23, Ger-
many.
REEVES, A. (M)
Hollywood Motion Picture Equip-
ment Co., Ltd., 645 N. Martel
Ave., Hollywood, Calif.
REICHARD, E. H. (A)
25 Fulton St., Weehawken, N. J.
REIFSTECK, C. N. (F)
Engineering Dept., RCA Manu-
facturing Co., Inc., Camden, N. J.
REITH, A. J. (A)
12 Codman Hill Ave., Dorchester,
Mass.
REMERSHIBD, H. W. (M)
907 N. Edinbourgh, Hollywood,
Calif.
RENIER, A. H. (4)
Renier Mfg. Co., 940 N. 21st St.,
Milwaukee, Wisconsin.
RENKE, A. (A)
45 Horatio St., New York, N. Y.
RENWICK, F. F. (F)
Ilford Limited, Ilford, Essex, Eng-
land.
REPP, W. H. (M}
Projection Optics Co., Inc., 330
Lyell Ave., Rochester, N. Y.
REYNOLDS, J. L. (M)
Electrical Research Products, Inc.,
250 West 57th St., New York,
N. Y.
RICHARD, A. J. (M)
544 West 43rd St., New York, N. Y.
RICHARD, J. (A)
Washington Apartments, Vancouver,
B. C., Canada,
RICHARDSON, E. C. (M)
Mole-Richardson, Inc., 941 N. Syca-
more Ave., Hollywood, Calif.
RICHARDSON, F. H. (F)
3 Tudor Lane, Scarsdale, N. Y.
RICHMOND, J. (A)
5725 Windsor Place, Philadelphia,
Pa.
RlCHTER, A. (A)
920 Kelly St., Bronx, N. Y.
RICKARDS, H. B. (A)
2900 E. Gd. Blvd., Detroit, Mich.
RICKER, M. (M)
United Research Corp., Burbank,
Calif.
RlDGWAY, D. W. (4)
780 Gower St., Los Angeles, Calif.
RIES, P. D. (A)
National Carbon Co., Inc., Room
1229, 30 East 42nd St., New York,
N. Y.
RIFKIN, J. L. (M)
3444 Knox Place, Bronx, N. Y.
RILEY, R. (A)
823 Seward St., Hollywood, Calif.
RINALDY, E. S. (A)
Chester, N. J.
RlSEWICK, W. J. (A)
358 Adelaide St., W., Toronto,
Ontario, Canada.
RIST, K. (A)
3210 Avenue P, Brooklyn, N. Y.
Rizzo, C. (A)
255 N. 13th St., Philadelphia, Pa.
ROBERT, A. R. (4)
Rambla de Cataluna 69, Barce-
lona, Spain.
ROBERTS, F. W. (4)
1365 E. 14th St., Apartment 3D,
Brooklyn, N. Y.
ROBILLARD, P. M. (M)
RCA Photophone, Inc., 411 Fifth
Ave., New York, N. Y.
ROCHOWICZ, S. (4)
Chimielna 29 M. 29, Warsaw,
Poland.
Mar., 1936]
LIST OF MEMBERS
313
ROCK, J. B. (A)
1228 E. McMillan St., Cincinnati,
Ohio.
ROCKVAM, A. O. (A)
790 Clinton Ave., Newark, N. J.
ROCKWELL, H. P., JR. (A)
Weston Electrical Instrument Corp.,
614 Frelinghuysen Ave., Newark,
N.J.
RODWELL, L. A. (4)
47-17 39th St., Long Island City,
N. Y.
ROGALLI, N. J. (A)
2753 Cruger Ave., 1, Bronx, N. Y.
ROGER, H. (A)
Sandy Hook, Conn.
ROGERS, F. B. (M)
404 East 55th St., Apt. 15A, New
York, N. Y.
ROGERS, F. B. (A)
404 East 55th St., New York, N. Y.
ROGERS, J. E. (M)
"Cluny," Deacon Hill Road, Elstree
(Herts), England.
ROLAND, E. C. (A)
Ilex Optical Co., 726 Portland Ave.,
Rochester, N. Y.
ROLLINS, F. S., JR. (A)
372 W. 250th St., New York, N. Y.
ROSE, S. G. (M)
527 West Fourth St., Davenport,
Iowa.
ROSEMAN, I. (M)
Kodak A. G., Markgrafenstrasse 7-6,
Berlin, Germany.
ROSENSWEIG, M. (M)
H. E. R. Laboratories, Inc., 457 West
46th St., New York, N. Y.
ROSENTHAL, A. (A)
Zimmerstrasse 35, Berlin, S. W. 68,
Germany.
Ross, A. (A)
363 Vincent Ave., Lynbrook, L. I.,
N. Y.
Ross, C. (M)
Motion Picture Lighting & Equip-
ment Co., 244 West 49th St.,
New York, N. Y.
Ross, C. H. (A)
6508 80th Ave., Glendale, L. I.,
N. Y.
Ross, E. (M)
United Research Corp., Burbank,
Calif.
Ross, O. A. (M)
198 Broadway, New York, N. Y.
Rossi, P. (A)
Piazza Rondini 48, Rome, Italy.
ROSSITER, D. R. (M)
442 North Illinois St., Indianapolis,
Ind.
ROUSE, J. J. (M)
Kodak Australasia Pty., Ltd., 379
George St., Sydney, N. S. W.,
Australia.
ROWSON, S. (F)
62 Shaftesbury Ave., London, W. 1,
England.
RUBIN, H. (F)
Paramount Publix Corp., Paramount
Bldg., New York, N. Y.
RUBLY, H. C. (A)
890 Ridgewood Road, Millburn,
N.J.
RUDOLPH, W. F. (M)
Paramount Productions, Inc., 5451
Marathon St., Hollywood, Calif.
RUOT, M. (F)
Kodak, Ltd., Kingsway, London,
E. C. 2, England.
RUSSELL, K. B. (A)
3632 Detroit Ave., Toledo, Ohio.
RUSSELL, W. F. (M)
Hall & Connolly, Inc., 24 Van Dam
St., New York, N. Y.
RUTH, C. E. (A)
282 W. Palm St., Altadena, Calif.
RUTTENBERG, J. (A)
Roosevelt Hotel, Hollywood, Calif.
RYAN, H. (A)
8053 S. Paulina St., Auburn Park
Sta., Chicago, 111.
RYDER, L. L. (M}
Paramount Publix Corp., 5451
Marathon St., Hollywood, Calif.
314
LIST OF MEMBERS
[J. S. M. P. E.
SACHTLEBEN, L. T. (A)
RCA Manufacturing Co., Inc., Bldg.
5, Room 308, Camden, N. J.
SAEKI, R. E. (A)
22 Kuritaya, Kanagawa-Ku, Yoko-
hama, Japan.
SAILLIARD, J. H. (A)
Bell Telephone Laboratories, Inc.,
463 West St., New York, N. Y.
SALVING, S. (A)
2070 East 22nd St., Brooklyn, N. Y.
SAMUELS, I. (M)
Automatic Devices Co., 737 Hamil-
ton St., Allentown, Pa.
SANDSTONE, J. (^4)
Ford Hotel, Buffalo, N. Y.
SANDVIK, O. (F)
Research Laboratory, Eastman Ko-
dak Co., Rochester, N. Y.
SANTEE, H. B. (F)
Electrical Research Products, Inc.,
250 West 57th St., New York,
N. Y.
SARGENT, R. (A)
Automatic Film Laboratories, Ltd.,
513 Dowling St., Moore Park,
Sydney, Australia.
SATTAN, G. D. (A)
125 Terrace Ave., Hasbrouck
Heights, N. J.
SAUNDERS, R. (M)
1023 S. Wabash Ave., Chicago, 111.
SAVINA, J. F. (A)
7 Jay St., Cambridge, Mass.
SAWYER, J. W. (^4)
14 Groveland Ave., Buffalo, N. Y.
SCANLON, E. J. (A)
40x/2 Lyman St., Holyoke, Mass.
SCARLETT, J. J. Y. (A)
West Buttlands, Woodside Road,
Beaconfields (Bucks), England.
SCHABBEHAR, E. A. (4)
358 Village Ave., Rockville Centre,
N. Y.
SCHAEFER, J. M. (M)
Balaban & Katz Theaters, 408 N.
Ashland Ave., Chicago, 111.
SCHAEFFER, F. H. (A)
De Luxe Laboratories, Inc., 441 West
55th St., New York, N. Y.
SCHARMANN, P. G. (A)
1181 Broadway, New York, N. Y.
SCHEIBELL, G. B. (4)
Wired Radio, Inc., Ampere, N. J.
SCHLANGER, B. (If)
67 West 44th St., New York, N. Y.
SCHMID, F. (M)
C. P. Goerz American Optical Co.,
317 East 34th St., New York,
N. Y.
SCHMIDT, W. A. (F)
Agfa Ansco Corp., Binghamton,
N. Y.
SCHMIDT, W. E. (A)
Ritz Theater, Scranton, Pa.
SCHMINKEY, H. K. (A)
821 Wellington St., Baltimore,
Md.
SCHMITZ, E. C. (M)
Kodak Co., 39 Avenue Montaigne,
Paris, France.
SCHMITZ, W. J. (A)
61 Oakdale Blvd., Royal Oak. Mich.
SCHOTOFER, C. H. (A)
836 North 34th St., Camden, N. J.
SCHROTT, P. R. von (A)
Getreidemarkt, 9, Vienna, IV, Aus-
tria.
SCHWENGELER, C. E. (M)
34-14 Parsons Blvd., Flushing, L. I.,
N. Y.
SCOTT, D. W. (M)
52 Clark St., Brooklyn, N. Y.
SCOTT, W. B. (A)
National Carbon Co., Inc., Carbon
Sales Division, 2118 Carbide &
Carbon Bldg., Chicago, 111.
SCRIVEN, E. O. (F)
Bell Telephone Laboratories, Inc.,
463 West St., New York, N. Y.
SEASE, V. B. (F)
Parlin, N. J.
SEIFFERT, S. A. (^4)
P. O. Box 65, Easton, Pa.
Mar., 1936]
LIST OF MEMBERS
315
SERRURIER, I. (Af)
Moviola Co., 1451 Gordan St.,
Hollywood, Calif.
SHAFER, L. J. (.4)
703 Finance Bldg.. Cleveland, Ohio.
SHALKHAUSER, E. G. (M)
147 Cooper St., Peoria, 111.
SHANTARAM, V. (M)
Prabhat Film Co., Prabhat Kagar,
Poona, India.
SHAPIRO, A. (Af)
Ampro Corporation, 2839-51 No.
Western Ave., Chicago, 111.
SHEA, T. E. (F)
Bell Telephone Laboratories, Inc.,
463 West St., New York, N. Y.
SHEARER, B. F. (A)
2318 2nd Ave., Seattle, Wash.
SHEPPARD, S. E. (F)
Eastman Kodak Co., Kodak Park,
Rochester, N. Y.
SHIELDS, W. B. (A)
War Dept., Signal Corps., Photo-
graphic Lab., The Army War
College, Washington, D. C.
SHIMAZAKA, K. (A)
1128 Higashi 2-Chome, Magome-
machi, Omoriku, Tokyo, Japan.
SHIRAS, A. (A)
4841 Ellsworth Ave., Pittsburgh, Pa.
SHIRODKAR, G. N. (^4)
Hardoli House, Hindu Colony, Da-
dar, Bombay, India.
SHNIPKIN, D. (A)
1665 Morris Ave., Bronx, N. Y.
SHORNEY, C. R. (A)
59 Grenadier Road, Toronto, On-
tario, Canada.
SHOTWELL, H. H. (A}
1008 South Boulevard, Greenwood,
Miss.
SHULTZ, E. P (A)
1016 No. Sycamore Ave., Holly-
wood, Calif.
SIEGEL, J. (A)
1522 N. Maraposa St., Hollywood,
Calif.
SIGNOR, G. H. (A)
101 Palmer Ave., Kenmore, N. Y.
SILENT, H. C. (F)
Electrical Research Products, Inc.,
7048 Hollywood Blvd., Holly-
wood, Calif.
SINCLAIR, A. T. (A)
RCA Photophone, Ltd., Electra
House, Victoria Embankment,
London, W. C. 2, England.
SKINNER, C. R. (A)
290 Turk St., San Francisco, Calif.
SKITTRELL, J. G. (M)
Olympic Kinematograph Labora-
tory, School Road, London, W. 10.
England.
SLY, E. C. (M)
627 First Ave., N. Minneapolis,
Minn.
SMACK, J. C. (A)
S. S. White Dental Mfg. Co., 152
West 42nd St., New York, N. Y.
SMITH, A. C. (A)
Cinesound Productions, Ltd., 65
Elbley St., Waverley, N. S. W.,
Australia.
SMITH, F. (A)
1346 Clay Ave., Bronx, N. Y.
SMITH, H. B. (M)
42 Cooper St., West Springfield,
Mass.
SMITH, I. (A)
147 Columbia Road, Dorchester,
Mass.
SMITH, J. E. (M)
P. O. Box 3046, Washington, D. C.
SMITH, J. W. W. (A)
Ilford, Ltd., Cine Service Dept.,
National House, Wardour St.,
London, W. 1, England.
SMITH, K. R. (A)
272 Frances St., Teaneck, N. J.
SMITH, R. A. (A)
635 No. 7th St., Milwaukee, Wis.
SMOLINSKJ, B. P. (A)
6206 Winans Drive, Los Angeles,
Calif.
316
LIST OF MEMBERS
[J. S. M. P. E.
SOHONI, B. A. (Af)
Deccan Electric, 931 Sadashiv,
Poona 2, India.
Soi, B. M. (A)
22 Darya Ganj, Delhi, India.
SOLOW, S. P. (A)
2720 Hudson Blvd., Jersey City,
N.J.
SONTAGH, J. R. (A)
178 Yale Road, Audubon, N. J.
SOPER, W. E. (A)
P. O. Box 245, Ottawa, Canada.
SPACE, K. F. (A)
111 de Russey St., Binghamton,
N. Y.
SPAIN, C. J. (M)
Electrical Research Products, Inc.,
7046 Hollywood Blvd., Holly-
wood, Calif.
SPARKS, F. (A)
Amalgamated Theaters, Ltd., Queen
St., Auckland, Cl., New Zea-
land.
SPENCE, J. L., JR. (F)
Akeley Camera, Inc., 175 Varick St.,
New York, N. Y.
SPONABLE, E. I. (F)
277 Park Ave., Apartment 2W,
New York, N. Y.
SPRADLING, J. W. (A)
Box 282, Burt, Iowa.
SPRAGUE, A. (A)
Regent Theater Apts., Main St.,
St. John, New Brunswick, Can-
ada.
SPRAY, J. H. (F)
Ace Film Laboratories, Inc., 1277 E.
14th St., Brooklyn, N. Y.
STAFFORD, J. W. (A)
10317 Rossbury Place, Los Angeles,
Calif.
STAUD,C.J.(M)
Eastman Kodak Co., Kodak Park,
Rochester, N. Y.
STECHBART, B. E. (F)
Bell & Howell Co., 1801 Larchmont
Ave., Chicago, 111.
STEDEROTH, F. F. (A)
41 Watessing Ave., Bloomfield,
N.J.
STEED, R. C., JR. (A)
Nuhaka, Gisborne, New Zealand.
STEELE, L. L. (M)
S. M. Chemical Co., 514 West 57th
St., New York, N. Y.
STEELY, J. D. (A)
801 Third St., Marietta, Ohio.
STEINER, R. (4)
51 West 10th St., New York,
N. Y.
STEINER, W. J. F. (A)
4 Villa Eugene-Manuel, Paris,
France.
STEINHOF, E. G. (M}
145 W. 55th St., New York, N. Y.
STEPONAITIS, A. (4)
23 Cooley Place, Mt. Vernon, N. Y.
STODTER, C. S. (M)
War Dept., Signal Corps Photo-
graphic Lab., Fort Humphries,
D. C.
STOLLER, H. M. (F)
Bell Telephone Laboratories, Inc.,
463 West St., New York, N. Y.
STONE, C. H. (M)
Suite 1020, 205 W. Wacker Drive,
Chicago, 111.
STONE, J. H. (A)
31 Reid Ave., Port Washington,
N.Y.
STONE, W. P. (A)
Asheboro, N. C.
STORTY, F. J. (4)
Loew's Palace Theater, Washington,
D. C.
STRETCH, A. T., JR. (4)
207 Academy St., Trenton, N. J.
STRICKLER, J. F. (M}
2900 East Grand Blvd., Detroit,
Mich.
Mar., 1936]
LIST OF MEMBERS
317
STRINGER, J. (A)
226 Millwood Rd., Toronto, Ontario,
Canada.
STROCK, R. O. (M)
Eastern Service Studios, Inc., 35-11
:;:>th Ave., Astoria, L. I., N. Y.
STRONG, H. H. (F)
Strong Electric Co., 2501 LaGrange
St., Toledo, Ohio.
STRUSS, K. (F)
1343 North Orange Grove Ave.,
Hollywood, Calif.
STUBBS, J. A. (4)
2343 9th St., Boulder, Colo.
STUPRICH, P. (A)
10th & Allegheny Ave., Philadelphia,
Pa.
SUBEDAR, P. C. (A)
168 Vincent Road, Dadar, Bombay,
14, India.
SUGIURA, R. (Jlf)
H. Konishi & Co., 18 Honcho 2-
Chome, Nihonbashi-Ku, Tokyo,
Japan.
SUMNER, S. (M)
1434 Massachusetts Ave., Cam-
bridge, Mass.
SUNDE, H. E. (A)
RCA Manufacturing Co., Inc., Bldg.
2, Floor 41, Camden, N. J.
SUTARIA, S. F. (A)
Lalit Kunj, Amboli Road, Andheri,
India.
SWARTZ, E. M. (M)
Keystone Mfg. Co., 228 A St.,
Boston, Mass.
SWETT, W. C. (M)
705 Hollywood Security Bldg.,
Hollywood, Calif.
SWIST, T. P. (A)
306 Lowell St., Manchester, N. H.
TALWAR, R. C. (A)
500 Riverside Drive, New York, N. Y.
TAMAMURA, K. (.4)
7 ligura Katamachi, Azabu-Ku,
Tokyo, Japan.
TANAKA, E. (A)
Katamachi Omuro, Ukyoku, Kyoto,
Japan.
TANN, W. L. (4)
3420 89th St., Jackson Heights,
N. Y.
TANNBY, J. A. (M)
Sales on Sound Corp., 1600 Broad-
way, New York, N. Y.
TAPLIN, J. (A)
4 Tappan Road, Wellesley, Mass.
TASKER, H. G. (F)
United Research Corp., Burbank,
Calif.
TA VERNIER, R. (A)
1737 N. Campbell Ave., Chicago, 111.
TEITEL, A. (A)
Protecto Films, Inc., 105 West 40th
St., New York, N. Y.
TEJERO-SANZ, M. (A)
Western Electric Co. of Spain.
Plaze de Catalun 22, Barcelona,
Spain.
TENDULKAR, H. D. (M)
25 Bhan Daji Bhwan Bhan Daji
Road, Matunga, Bombay, 19,
India.
TERPENING, L. H. (M)
224 East 23rd St., New York, N. Y.
TERRANEAU, R. (F)
c/o George Humphries & Co., 71-77
Whitfield St., London, W. 1,
England.
TERRY, R. V. (Af)
Bell Telephone Laboratories, Inc.,
463 West St., New York, N. Y.
TETZLAFF, E. F. (4)
4 Shady Way, Rochester, N. Y.
THALLMAYER, H. J. (4)
Kreindlgasse 17, Vienna, XIX, Aus-
tria.
THAYER, W. L. (A)
Paramount Publix Corp., 5451 Mara-
thon St., Hollywood, Calif.
THEISEN, W. E. (M)
8649 Lookout Mt. Rd., Los Angeles
Calif.
318
LIST OF MEMBERS
[J. S. M. p. E.
THEREMIN, W. (.4)
Ste Lianofilm, 12 Rue Danicourt,
Malakoff, Seine, France.
THOMAS, A. R. (A)
Princess Theater, Shelbyville, Tenn.
THOMAS, J. L. (A)
13360 Lauder Ave., Detroit, Mich.
THOMAS, W. F. (A)
352 Drexel Ave., South, Detroit,
Mich.
THOMPSON, F. B. (A)
1611 N. Sierra Bonita Ave., Holly-
wood, Calif.
THOMPSON, L. (A)
B. M. A. Bldg., Kansas City, Mo.
THOMPSON, V. E. (A)
1016 North Cole Ave., Los Angeles,
Calif.
THOMPSON, W. S. (A)
c/o The Vitaphone Corp., 1277
E. 14th St., Brooklyn, N.Y.
TICKNER, A. J. (A)
452 N. Los Robles Ave., Pasadena,
Calif.
TIMMER, A. L. (A)
Leeuweriklaan 5, Eindhoven, Hol-
land.
TIZIAN, S. L. (A)
282 Cypress Ave., New York, N. Y.
TORNEY, R. G. (A)
218 Sadashiv Peth, Poona, No. 2,
India.
TORNOVSKY, I. M. (^4)
RCA Victor Co. of China, P. O. Box
1802, Shanghai, China.
TOTH, A. F. (A)
1628 First Ave., New York, N. Y.
TOUZE, G. (M)
Pathe Pictures, Ltd., 103 Wardour
St., London, W. 1, England.
TOWNSEND, L. M. (A)
125 Merchants Road, Rochester,
N.Y.
TREACY, C. S. (A)
United Research Corp., Burbank,
Calif.
TRENTINO, V. (A)
Via Ardea 11, Rome, Italy.
TRIMBLE, L. S. (A)
5301 West Blvd., Los Angeles, Calif.
TRONOLONE, N. (M)
1059 Briar Way, Palisade, N. J.
TSUCHIHASHI, H. (A)
60 Misono-Machi, Kamata-Ku,
Tokyo, Japan.
TUCK, F. A. (M)
111 Kingshill Ave., Kenton Harrow,
Middlesex, England.
TUCKERMAN, L. P. (A)
3518 Farragut Rd., Brooklyn, N. Y.
TULPAN, S. (.4)
H. E. R. Laboratories, Inc., 437 West
46th St., New York, N. Y.
TURNBULL, A. D. (M)
Northern Electric Co., Ltd., 1261
Shearer St., Montreal, Canada.
TURVEY, C. F. (A)
3173 18th St., N. W., Washington,
D. C.
TUTTLE, C. M. (F)
Research Laboratory, Eastman Ko-
dak Co., Rochester, N. Y.
TUTTLE, H. B. (M)
Eastman Kodak Co., 343 State St.,
Rochester, N. Y.
TYLER, K. (A)
1217 Newkirk Ave., Flatbush,
Brooklyn, N. Y.
UNDERBILL, C. R., JR. (^4)
708 2nd Ave., Westmont, Johnstown.
Pa.
UNDERBILL, J. L. (M)
R. C. A. Photophone, Ltd., Film
House, Wardour St., London,
England.
VALLEN, E. J. (A)
225 Bluff St., Akron, Ohio.
VAN BREUKELEN, J. (A}
Philips Cine Sonor, Inc., Eindhoven.
Holland.
VAN VLEET, F. S. (A)
1217 Grant Ave., York, Nebr
Mar., 1936]
LIST OF MEMBERS
319
VAUGHAN, R. (M)
Filtncraft Laboratories, 35-39 Mis-
senden Rd., Camperdown, Syd-
ney, Australia.
VENARD, C. L. (A)
702 S. Adams St., Peoria, 111.
VERLINSKY, V. (4)
Amkino Corp., 723 Seventh Ave.,
New York, N. Y.
VICTOR, A. F. (F)
Victor Animatograph Co., 242 West
55th St., New York, N. Y.
VIETH, L. (A)
Bell Telephone Laboratories, Inc.,
463 West St., New York, N. Y.
VINSEN, S. E. (A)
25 Bourke St., Kilbirnie, Wellington,
New Zealand.
VOLCK, A. G. (M)
9441 Wilshire Boulevard, Beverly
Hills, Calif.
VOLF, C. A. (A)
48 West 48th St., New York, N. Y.
WADDELL, J. H. (A)
18 Curtiss Place, New Brunswick,
N.J.
WADDINGHAM, A. G. (M)
Kromocolor, Inc., Hackensack P.O.,
New Jersey.
WADE, F. H. (A)
537 59th St., Brooklyn, N. Y.
WAGNER, B. (A)
856 South 16th St., Newark, N. J.
WAGNER, V. C. (A)
908 North 4th Ave., Knoxviile,
Tenn.
WALL,;. M. (F)
J. M. Wall Machine Co., 101 Court
St., Syracuse, N. Y.
WALL, W. I. (A)
309 West 109th St., New York, N. Y.
WALLER, F. (M)
R. F. D. 3, Huntington, L. I., N. Y.
WALTER, H. L. (A)
Bell Telephone Laboratories, Inc.,
463 West St., New York, N. Y.
WALTERS, H. (A)
136 N. Windsor Ave., Atlantic City,
N.J.
WARD, E. J. (M)
553 Denise Road, Rochester, N. Y.
WARD, J. S. (F)
Electrical Research Products, Inc.,
250 West 57th St., New York,
N. Y.
WARMISHAM, A. (F)
Taylor, Taylor & Hobson, Strough-
ton St., Leicester, England.
WASCHNECK, K. (M)
Aktiengesellschaft Fur Film Fabrika-
tion, Victoria-Strasse 13-18, Ber-
lin-Tempelhof, Germany.
WATKINS, R. H. (A)
P. O. Box 233, Winona, Minn.
WATKINS, S. S. A. (F)
Western Electric Co., Bush House,
Aldwych, London, W. C. 2,
England.
WATSON, E. M. (A)
Lamp Development Laboratories,
General Electric Co., Nela Park,
Cleveland, Ohio.
WATSON, J. S., JR. (F)
6 Sibley Place, Rochester, N. Y.
WEBER, C. M. (F)
Weber Machine Corp., 55 Bengal
Terrace, Rochester, N. Y.
WEBBER, A. C. (A)
"Devonia" 1, Addiscombe Close,
Kenton, Middlesex, England.
WEIL, N. (A)
P. O. Box 1472, Atlanta, Ga.
WELMAN, V. A. (M)
207 Finance Bldg., Cleveland, Ohio.
WENTE, E. C. (F)
Bell Telephone Laboratories, Inc.,
463 West St., New York, N. Y.
WENZ, A. (A)
1305 Dorchester Road, Brooklyn,
N. Y.
WENZEL, M. (A)
2509 So. State St., Chicago, 111.
320
LIST OF MEMBERS
[J. S. M. P. E.
WERNLEIN, C. E. (4)
United Research Corp., Burbank,
Calif.
WEST, A. B. (A)
21 Oak St., Lexington, Mass.
WESTHEIMER, J. (A)
721 So. Genesee St., Los Angeles,
Calif.
WESTON, J. C. (A)
66-20 53rd Ave., Maspeth, L. I.,
N. Y.
WESTWATER, W. (M)
Research Laboratories, Eastman Ko-
dak Co., Rochester, N. Y.
WHEELER, E. A. (A)
116 Clifford St., Gisborne, New Zea-
land.
WHEELER, W. L. (4)
Tokomaru Bay, New Zealand.
WHITE, D. R. (F)
Redpath Laboratory, Dupont Film
Mfg. Corp., Parlin, N. J.
WHITMORE, W. (M)
Western Electric Co., 195 Broadway,
New York, N. Y.
WIDDOWS, C. G. (4)
20 Malthouse Sq., Beaconsfield,
Bucks, England.
WIGGIN, L. J. (A)
38-35 208th St., Bayside, L. I.,
N. Y.
WILD, G. (M)
2 Place Jean - Baptiste - Clement,
Paris, 18E, France.
WILD, S. J. (A)
545 Valle Vista Ave., Oakland,
Calif.
WILDING, W. A. (A)
398 East Avenue, Pawtucket, R. I.
WILDUNG, F. H. (If)
708 Butternut St., N. W., Washing-
ton, D. C.
WILLARD, T. W. (A)
130 W. 46th St., New York,
N. Y.
WILLIAMS, A. T. (M)
Weston Electrical Instrument Corp.,
Frelinghuysen Ave., Newark, N. J.
WILLIAMS, G. A. (A)
21 Linden Gardens, London W. 2
England.
WILLIAMS, S. B. (4)
366 Clermont Ave., Brooklyn,
N. Y.
WILLIAMSON, T. H. (4)
18 Priory Court, West Hampstead,
London, N. W. 6, England.
WILLIFORD, E. A. (/O
National Carbon Co., Inc., 30 E.
42nd St., New York, N. Y.
WILLIS, F. C. (M)
Passaic Ave., RFD, Caldwell,
N. J.
WlLLMAN, R. C. (M)
RCA Manufacturing Co., Inc., Cam-
den, N. J.
WILMOT, H. T. (A)
c/o Edwin Carewe Productions,
1040 No. Las Palmas, Hollywood,
Calif.
WILSON, C. K. (M)
The Vitaphone Corp., 1277 East 14th
St., Brooklyn, N. Y.
WILSON, S. K. (A)
12 Whitehall Rd., Harrow, Middle-
sex, England.
WlNKELMAN, H. (A)
1233 Wheeling Ave., Zanesville,
Ohio.
WlNKLER, F. W. (A)
Box 757, Massapequa, Long Island,
N. Y.
WINN, C. B., JR. (A)
421 East J St., Ontario, Calif.
WlNTERMAN, C. (M)
Topical Films Co., Ltd., Brent
Laboratories, No. Circular Road,
London, N. W. 2, England.
WISE, A. G. (M)
8970 West 24th St., Los Angeles,
Calif.
WlSSMANN, J. (.4)
Rockland Ave., New Springville,
S. I., N. Y.
WITT, E. H. (A)
355 E. 197th St., Euclid, Ohio.
Mar., 1936]
LIST OF MEMBERS
321
WJTTELS, J. M. (A)
2222 Harriet Ave., Minneapolis,
Minn.
WOLCOTT, E. A. (M)
2065V4 Hillhurst Ave., Hollywood,
Calif.
WOLF, S. K. (F)
Electrical Research Products, Inc.,
250 West 57th St., New York,
N. Y.
WOLFE, W. V. (A)
304 S. Canon Dr., Beverly Hills,
Calif.
WOLFERZ. A. H. (M)
Weston Electric Instrument Corp.,
614 Frelinghuysen Ave., Newark,
N.J.
WOLFF, E. H. (A)
17, Audley Road, Hauger Hill,
Baling, London, W. 5, England.
WONG, H. S. (.4)
P. O. Box 1931, Shanghai, China.
WONG, T. (A)
Eastman Kodak Co., 185 Yuen
Ming Yuen Rd., Shanghai, China.
WOOD, E. W. (A}
15 34th St., Woodcliff, N. J.
WOOD, W. H. (A)
522 E. 14th St., Bartlesville, Okla-
homa.
WOODWARD, E. K., JR. (A)
New Palama Theater, Honolulu,
Hawaii.
WORRALL, G. H. (A)
Mitchell Camera Corp., 665 N.
Robertson Blvd., West Hollywood,
Calif.
WORSTELL, R. E. (A)
General Electric Co., Engineering
Dept., Nela Park, Cleveland,
Ohio.
WRATTEN, I. D. (F)
Kodak, Ltd., Kingsway, London,
England.
WRIGHT, A. (4)
Palais Pictures, St. Kilda S. 2,
Melbourne, Australia.
WUTKE, L. M. (A)
1938 Victoria Ave., Los Angeles,
Calif.
WYATT, C. (A)
Portia St., Stratford, N. Z.
WYND, C. L. A. (M)
Eastman Kodak Co., Kodak Park,
Rochester, N. Y.
YAGER, H. B. (M)
61 Morton St., New York, N. Y.
YAHR, M. J. (A)
108 Richey Ave., W. Collingswood,
N.J.
YASUI, S. (A)
Katabiragaoka Uzamasa Ukyoku,
Kyota, Japan.
YECK, F. A. (A)
17 Howard Place, Jersey City, N. J.
YESENSKIY, A. P. (A)
V. J. — IF Naval Air Station, San
Diego, Calif.
YOUNG, H. A. (A)
818 55th St., Brooklyn, N. Y.
YOUNG, M. G. (A)
6511 Willoughby Ave., Hollywood,
Calif.
YOUNGER, C. A. (A)
107 Ravenhurst Ave., Staten Island,
N. Y.
ZANETTI, E. (4)
355 West 34th St., New York, N. Y.
ZATORSKY, E. F. (4)
Seward Hotel, Seward Ave., Detroit,
Michigan.
ZAUGG, A. (A)
1830 Ridgeley Drive, Los Angeles,
Calif.
ZELONY, E. M. (M)
220 West 42nd St., New York, N. Y.
ZEPPELIN, H. V. (A)
Western Electric Co. of Spain,
Plaza de Cataluna 22, Barcelona,
Spain.
ZERK, O. U. (M)
3206 Palmolive Bldg., Chicago, 111.
322 LIST OF MEMBERS
ZlEBARTH, C. A. (Af) ZUBER, J. G. (M)
1801 Larchmont Ave., Chicago, 111. Bell & Howell Co., 1801 Larchmont
ZIPSER, S. (A) Ave., Chicago, 111.
1019 Farnam St., Los Angeles, Calif. ZUMAR, A. B. (4)
ZOELTSCH, W. F. (A) 178 Goulburn Ave., Ottawa, On-
921 Bergenline Ave., Union City, tario, Canada.
N.J.
LIST OF MEMBERS
(Arranged geographically)
Alabama
KING, P. A. U)
California
AALBERG, J. O. (M)
ALBECKER, C. A. (A)
ALBIN, F. G. (A)
ALLER, J. (M)
AMES, M. H. (A)
ATKINSON, R. B. (A)
BALL, J. A. (F)
BARKELEW, J. T. (A)
BAUER, E. L. (A)
BERG, B. (A)
BEST, G. M. (A)
BLINN, A. F. (A)
BORGESON, L. G. (A)
BROCKWAY, W. W. (M)
BROWN, J. C. (M)
BROWN, vS. D. (A)
BURCHETT, C. W. (M)
BUSICK, D. W. (M)
BUSSELL, E. J. 04)
CARLSON, A. (^4)
CARPENTER, A. W. (A)
CAVE, G. A. (M)
CAVE, R. T. (A)
CECCARINI, O. O. (M)
CHAMBERS, G. A. (M)
CHASE, L. W. (A )
CLARK, L. E. (M)
CLEVELAND, H. B. (A)
COFFINBBRRY, C. N. (A)
COLE, F. H., JR. (A)
COLEMAN, E. W. (A)
COURCIER, J. L. (M)
CRANE, J. E. (A)
DAVIDGE, L. C. (F)
DE BEAULIEU, L. (A)
DEMOS, G. (A )
DENK, J. M. (A)
DENSMORE, R. E. (A )
DETMERS, F. H. (A )
DOIRON, A. L. (A )
DREHER, C. (F)
DUBRAY, J. A. (F)
DUNNING, C. H. (F)
DURST, J. A. (A)
EDOUART, A. F. (M)
EICH, F. L. (A)
ELLISON, M. (M)
FARRAND, C. L. (F)
FELTHOUSEN, A. J. (A)
FLACK, F. (M)
FOREMAN, S. (A)
FRAYNE, J. G. (F)
FREERICKS, B. (M)
FREUND, K. (A)
GEORGE, H. H. (A)
GIBSON, G. H. (A )
GOLDFARB, H. (M)
GOLDSCHNEIDER, G. (A)
GOSHAW, I. R. (M)
GRIFFITH, L. M. (M)
GROTE, W. G. (A)
GRUSSING, H. (A)
GUERRERO, E. S. (M)
GUINTINI, C. (A)
GUNDELFINGER, A. M. (
HANDLEY, C. W. (M)
HANSEN, E. H. (M)
HARCUS, W. C. (M)
HARPER, E. R. (M)
HARRINGTON, T. T. (M)
HARVEY, A. E. (A)
HEACOCK, F. C. (A)
HENSMAN, H. G. (A)
HOCH, W. C. (A)
323
324
LIST OF MEMBERS
[J. S. M. p. E.
HOFFMAN, L. B. (M)
HUSE, E. (F)
INGMAN, T. M. (M )
JAMES, F. E. (If)
JONES, L. G. (A)
KALMUS, H. T. (F)
KlENNINGER, J. F. (M)
KlMBALL, H. R. (M}
LAMBERT, K. B. (F)
LANE, A. L. (M)
LARSEN. P. J. (F)
LENTZ, H. R. (4)
LESHING, M. S. (F)
LEVINSON, N. (M)
LEWIS, W. W. (A)
LlNDERMAN, R. G. (M)
LlVADARY, J. P. 04)
LUCID, F. J., JR. (A)
LUDLAM, J. M. (A)
MAAS, A. R. (A)
MACLEOD, K. A. (A)
MARGOSSIAN, M. (4)
McCROSKEY, H. E. (M)
MCCULLOUGH, R. (F)
MELVILLE, W. (A)
MEYER, H. (F}
MILLER, R. P. (A)
MILLER, V. E. (A)
MILLER, W. C. (F)
MITCHELL, G. A. (F)
MITCHELL, G. S. (M )
MOLE, P. (F)
MOLS, P. M. (A)
MORGAN, K. F. (F)
MOYSE, H. W. (F)
MUELLER, W. A. (M )
NlCKOLAUS, J. M. (F)
NIELSEN, J. F. (A)
OLMSTEAD, L. B. (^4)
OSTER, E. (4)
OWNBY, L. C. (A)
PADEN, C. E. (A)
PHILLIPS, J. H., JR. (A)
PHILLIPPS, L. C. (F)
POHL, W. E. (A)
PRAUTSCH, J. H. (A)
PREDDEY, W. A. 04)
QUINLAN, W. (Af)
RACKETT, G. F. (F)
REEVES, A. (M)
REMERSCHIED, H. W. (M )
RICHARDSON, E. C. (M)
RICKER, M. (M)
RIDGWAY, D. W. (A)
RlLEY, R. (A)
Ross, E. (M)
RUDOLPH, W. F. (M)
RUTH, C. E. (A)
RUTTENBERG, J. (A)
RYDER, L. L. (If)
SERRURIER, I. (M )
SHULTZ, E. P. (4)
SIEGEL, J. 04)
SILENT, H. C. (F)
SKINNER, C. R. 04)
SMOLINSKI, B. P. 04)
SPAIN, C. J. (M}
STAFFORD, J. W. (A )
STRUSS, K. (F)
SWETT, W. C. (M)
TASKER, H. G. (F)
THAYER, W. L. 04)
THEISEN, W. E. (Jf)
THOMPSON, F. B. 04)
THOMPSON, V. E. 04)
TICKNER, A. J. 04)
TREACY, C. S. (A)
TRIMBLE, L. S. 04)
VOLCK, A. G. (M)
WERNLEIN, C. E. 04)
WESTHEIMER, J. (A )
WILD, S. J. 04)
WILMOT, H. T. (A)
WINN, C. B., JR. (A)
WISE, A. G. (M)
WOLCOTT, E. A. (Jf)
WOLFE, W. V. (4)
WORRALL, G. H. (A)
WUTKE, L. M. (A)
YESENSKIY, A. P. (^4)
YOUNG, M. G. (A)
ZAUGG, A. 04)
ZIPSER, S. 04)
Colorado
ALEXANDER, D. M. (M)
Mar., 1936J
LIST OF MEMBERS
325
FRANTZ, G. F. (A)
GRAHAM, H. (-4)
HANNAN, J. H. (X)
STUBBS, J. A. (A)
Connecticut
AYERS, A. P., JR. (A)
BAKER, W. R. G., (F)
BLIVEN, J. E. (Jlf)
CAMERON, J. R. (F)
COLLINS, D. W. (4)
HOLDEN, H. C. (Jlf)
OLDHAM, C. (4)
PHELPS, L. G. (M}
ROGER, H. (A)
Delaware
HILL, M. H. (A)
HlRZEL, A. (A)
LYON, L. H. (A)
MARSH, H. N. (A)
District of Columbia
ARMAT, T. (H]
BENNETT, D. (M)
BRADLEY, J. G. (A)
CORRIGAN, J. T. (M )
COWLING, H. T. (A)
DAVIS, J. B. (A)
EVANS, R. (F)
GEORGENS, G. R. (Jlf)
GILLETTE, M. E. (Jlf)
GLASSER, N. (M)
GOLDEN, N. D. (A)
HAYTHORNE, R. N. (4
HOPKINS, T. L. (A)
KILTON, G. C. (A)
KRUSE, W. F. (A)
MOORE, T. (Jlf)
FETTERS, W. K. (4)
PRATT, J. A. (A)
SHIELDS, W. B. (A)
SMITH, J. E. (Jlf)
STODTER, C. S. (Jlf)
STORTY, F. J. (A)
TURVEY, C. F. (Jlf)
WlLDUNG, F. H. (Jlf)
Florida
McGiNNis, F. J. (A)
Georgia
WEIL, N. (A)
Illinois
ANDRES, L. J. (M)
BAKER, G. W. (Jlf)
BASS, C. (Jlf)
BEAN. D. P. (A}
BEDORE, R. P. (A)
BUSCH, H. (A)
CHAPMAN, C. T. (A)
Cox, L. R. U)
DEPUE, B. W. (Jlf)
DEPUE, O. B. (F}
DEVRY, H. A. (F)
FOOTE, P. C. 04)
FUNK, J. J. (A)
GAVER, E. M. (A)
HAMILTON, V. P. (A)
HECK, F. P. (Jlf)
HOWELL, A. S. (F)
KLEERUP, B. J. (Jlf)
LARUE, M. W. (A)
LUKES, S. A. (Jlf)
MACOMBER, W. W. (A)
MATTHEWS, B. (A)
McAuLEY, J. E. (F)
MCNABB, J. H. (F)
MITCHELL, R. F. (F)
NELSON, E. W. (4)
NlEMANN, H. P. (A)
NORWOOD, D. W. (Jlf)
RYAN, H. (A)
SAUNDERS, R. (M)
SCHAEFER, J. M. (Jlf)
SCOTT, W. B. (A)
SHALKHAUSER, E. G. (Jlf)
SHAPIRO, A. (Jlf)
STECHBART, B. E. (F}
STONE, C. H. (Jlf)
326
LIST OF MEMBERS
[J. S. M. P. E.
TA VERNIER, R. (A)
VENARD, C. L. (A)
WENZEL, M. (A)
ZERK, O. U. (M)
ZIEBARTH, C. A.
ZUBER, J. G. (M)
Indiana
FREIMANN, F. (F)
MORRIS, L. P. (A)
ROSSITER, D. R. (M)
Iowa
ROSE, S. G. (M)
SPRADLING, J. W. (A)
Kansas
BAKER, H. W. (M)
BROOKS, G. E. (A)
DANIELSON, D. 04)
Louisiana
FRAZIER, L. 04)
Maine
CHILDS, J. A. (A)
Maryland
BARKMAN, C. 04)
DUSMAN, H. C. (A)
GREEN, R. B. 04)
HAEFELE, N. C. (M)
MURPHY, G. D. (A)
SCHMINKEY, H. K. (A )
Massachusetts
ALDRIDGE, K. W. 04)
BARROWS, T. C. (M)
BISHOP, G. A., JR. 04)
BREWSTER, J. R. 04)
CADDIGAN, J. L. (M )
CIFRE, J. S. (M)
COHEN, J. H. (M )
COMI, E. G. 04)
COOLIDGE, P. E. (A)
EAGER, M. (A)
FOSTER, L. L. 04)
GIBBONS, J. M. 04)
GLEASON, C. H. (A)
GOOKIN, F. M. (A)
HARDY, A. C. (F)
JUDGE, P. E. 04)
LUBAO, R. (A}
MAURAN, J. (4)
McKlNNEY, H. J. (A)
MCNAMARA, D. T. (A)
McRAE, D. (Af)
MURRAY, A. P. 04)
NARBUT, L. A. (A)
PARRIS, R. C. 04)
PARSHLEY, C. W. (A)
PIROVANO, L. (A)
REITH, A. J. 04)
SAVINA, J. F. (A)
SCANLON, E. J. (A )
SMITH, H. B. (M)
SMITH, I. (A)
SUMNER, S. (M)
SWARTZ, E. M. (M)
TAPLIN, J. 04)
WEST, A. B. (A)
Michigan
ANDERS, H. 04)
AVIL, G. (A)
BIDDY, R. 04)
BRADFORD, A. J. (F)
BRENKERT, K. (M)
CHERETON, A. B. 04)
FENIMORE, R. W..(M)
GANSTROM, R. G. (-4)
HUNT, H. H. (A)
JARRETT, G. J. (M)
LOY, L. C. (A)
MCGLINNEN, E. J. (A)
MCMATH, R. R. (M)
MILLER, R. L. 04)
PACHOLKE, F. 04)
RICHARDS, H. B. (A}
SCHMITZ, W. J. (A)
STRICKLER, J. F. (M)
THOMAS, J. L. (A )
Mar., 1936]
LIST OF MEMBERS
327
THOMAS, W. F. (A)
ZATORSKY, E. F. (A)
Minnesota
GREENE, C. L. (F)
KARATZ, T. (M)
RAY, R. H. (M)
SLY, E. C. (M)
WATKINS, R. H. (A)
WITTELS, J. M. (4)
Mississippi
SHOTWELL, H. H. (A)
Missouri
ALLEY, G. L. (A)
BELLINGER, C. E. (A)
BENNETT, R. C. (M)
BUB, G. L. (A)
BUDDE, H. (M)
DAVIS, D. R. (A)
DENNEY, W. (4)
DWYER, A. J. (A)
EMMER, J. E. (A)
FIELDS, G. B. (A)
GlESKIENG, M. W. (4)
KELLEY, J. H. (-4)
MATTESON, N. (A)
MULLER, J. P. (M)
RANKIN, J. D. (A)
THOMPSON, L. (-4)
Nebraska
BALLANTYNE, R. S. (^4
JENNINGS, D. V. (A)
VAN VLEET, F. S. (A)
New Hampshire
LARSON, I. J. (-4)
SWIST, T. P. (-4)
New Jersey
ADATTE, A. L. (-4)
AIKEN, C. C. (A)
ARMSTRONG, H. L. (A)
AUGER, E. (A)
BACHMAN, C. J. (M)
BAKER, J. O. (M)
BAMFORD, W. B. (A)
BATSEL, M. C. (F)
BAUMANN, H. C. (-4)
BEGGS, E. W. (M)
BOLTON, W. A. (A )
BOMAN, A. (4)
BREWSTER, P. D. (F)
BURNAP, R. S. (F)
BURNETT, J. C. (F)
BUSCH, G. A. (AT)
BUTTOLPH, L. J. (F)
CANTOR, C. E. (4)
COLLINS, M. E. 04)
COOK, E. D. (A)
COOK, H. R., JR. (A)
COZZENS, L. S. (M)
CUNNINGHAM, R. G. (M)
CUNNINGHAM, T. D. (A )
DELVALLE, G. A. (A )
DICKINSON, E. A. 04)
DIMMICK, G. L. (A )
DOBSON, G. (M )
DUNNING, O. M. 04)
EDISON, T. M. (A)
ELDERKIN, J. K. (M)
ELLIS, E. P. 04)
EMLEY, R. H. (A)
FOSTER, W. D. (F)
FRANK, J., JR. (M)
GAGLIARDI, G. 04)
GASKI, T. J. (A)
GOODMAN, A. (^4)
GOVE, K. G. 04)
GREENE, P. E. (A)
GROVES, I. R. (A)
HENEY, J. E. (M)
HOHMEISTER, F. 04)
HOLMAN, A. J. (M)
HUBBARD, B. L. (M)
JERMAIN, H. F. (M)
KELLOGG, E. W. (A)
KEUFFEL, C. W. (M)
KREHLEY, G. A. (A}
KURLANDER, J. H. (F)
328
LIST OF MEMBERS
[J. S M. P. E.
LAMB, R. T. (A)
LANSING, D. W. (A)
LOOTENS, C. L. (M)
LUTTER, H. (A)
MACDONALD, A. F. 04)
MANCHEE, A. W. (M )
MASON, C. 04)
MCCLINTOCK, N. 04)
MILI, G. (A)
MILLER, A. J. (Af)
MILLER, A. W. (A)
MORENO, R. M. (M)
OAKLEY, N. F. (M)
PERRY, H. D. (A)
PORTER, G. C. C4)
REICHARD, E. H. (A)
REIFSTECK, C. N. (F)
RINALDY. E. S. (-4)
ROCKVAM, A. O. (4)
ROCKWELL, H. P., JR. (^4
RUBLY,H. C. (A)
SACHTLEBEN, L. T. (4)
SATTAN, G. D. (A)
SCHEIBELL, G. B. (4)
SCHOTOFER, C. H. (;4)
SEASE, V. B. (F)
SMITH, K. R. (A)
SOLOW, S. P. (A)
SONTAGH, J. R. (A)
STEDEROTH, F. F. 04)
STRETCH, A. T., JR. (4)
SUNDE, H. E. (A)
TRONOLONE, N. (M)
WADDELL, J. H. (A)
WADDINGHAM, A. G. (M)
WAGNER, B. 00
WALTERS, H. (4)
WHITE, D. R. (F}
WILLIAMS, A. T. (M)
WILLIS, F. C. (Af)
WILLMAN, R. C. (M)
WOLFERZ, A. H. (M)
WOOD, E. W. 04)
YOHR, M. J. (A)
YECK, F. A. (A)
ZOELTSCH, W. F. 04)
New York
ALTMAN, F. E. (4)
ANDERSON, E. L. 04)
ARNOLD, P. (M)
ARNSPIGER, V. C. (A}
AUSTRIAN, R. B. 04)
BAKER, T. T. 0*)
BALTIMORE, D. M. 04)
BATCHELOR, J. C. 04)
BAUER, K. A. (A)
BEACH, F. G. (A)
BEARMAN, A. A. (A)
BECKER, A. 04)
BEERS, N. T. (M)
BEHR, H. D. 04)
BELL, A. E. (A)
BENDHEIM, E. McD. 04)
BERG, A. G. 01)
BERNDT, E. M. (M)
BETTS, W. L. (M)
BIELICKE, W. P. (M)
BIRD, C. L. L. 04)
BLAIR, G. A. (F)
BLOOMBERG, D. J. (M)
BLOOMER, K. V. 04)
BONN, L. A. (M )
BORBERG, W. 04)
BRADSHAW, D. Y. (M)
BRADY, R. F. (A)
BRADY, S. S. (-4)
BRENEMAN, G. H. 04)
BROADHEAD, D. T. 04)
BROCK, G. (Jf)
BUENSOD, A. G. (M)
BURGUNDY, J. J. 04)
BURNS, S. R. (F)
BYRNE, W. W. (A)
CAHILL, F. E., JR. (M )
CAPSTAFF, J. G. (F)
CARSON, W. H. (F)
CARTER, J. C. (A}
CARULLA, R. (M)
CARVER, E. K. (F)
CASTAGNARO, D. 04)
CATELL, R. E. (A)
CAUMONT, N. 04)
CELESTIN, W. E. (M)
Mar., 1936]
LIST OF MEMBERS
GENDER, E. O. (M)
CHATTERJEE, R. N. (A)
CHURCH, A. E. (A)
CLARK, W. (F)
COHAN, E. K. (M)
COHEN, J. (4)
COLES, F. A. (4)
COMSTOCK, T. F. (A)
CONTNER, J. B. (M)
COOK, A. A. (M)
COOK, O. W. (M)
COOK, W. B. (F)
COUSINS, V. M. 04)
CRABTREE, J. (F)
CRABTREE, J. I. (F)
CRABTREE, T. H. (.4)
CRENNAN, O. V. (A)
CURTIS, E. P. (F)
CUTHBERTSON, H. B. (M)
DAVEE, L. W. (F)
DEGHUEE, C. M. (A)
DENAPOLI, A. C.f Jr. (M )
DEROBERTS, R. (M}
DEUTSCHER, D. (A)
DEVOE, E. M. (A)
DICKINSON, A. S. (F)
DILLEMUTH, H. G. 04)
DINGA, E. W. (A)
Dix, H. W. (F)
DUISBERG, W. H. (A)
DWYER, R. J. (A)
DYKEMAN, C. L. (M)
ECKLER, L. (M)
EDWARDS, G. C. (F)
EHLERT, H. H. (A)
ELMER, L. A. (M)
EMERSON, M. 04)
ENDERLE, J. 04)
ENGLE, J. W. (.4)
EVANS, P. H. (F)
EVANS, R. M. (F)
FAMULENER, K. (4)
FAULKNER, T. (AT)
FIELD, W. J. U)
FINN, J. J. (M)
FISCH, L. B. (Jkf)
FISHER, A. (M)
FLANNAGAN, C. (F)
FLEISCHER, M. (F)
FLINT, A. (M)
FLORY, L. P. (M)
FORSYTH, S. L. (A)
FOUTE, G. P. (A)
FRACKER, E. G. (M)
FREEDMAN, A. E. (F)
FRIEDL, G., JR. (M}
FRENCH, R. R. (M)
FRIEND, H. H. (M)
FRITTS, E. C. (F)
GAGE, H. P. (F)
GAGE, O. A. (M)
GALLO, R. (A)
GATY.J. P. 04)
GELB, L. (A)
GENT, E. W. (M)
GERCKE, C. (4)
GERMAINE, M. (.4)
GERMAN, W. J. (M)
GILBERT, F. C. (M)
GILMOUR, J. G. T. (A)
GlTHENS, A. S. (A)
GLAUBER, S. (A)
GLICKMAN, H. (M)
GLUNT, O. M. (F)
GOLDMAN, M. (4)
GOLDSMITH, A. N. (F)
GRASS, R. L. (A)
GREEN, N. B. (F)
GREGORY, C. L. 04)
GRIFFIN, H. (F)
GRIGNON, F. J. (A)
GROVER, H. G. (JO
GUTH, A. 04)
HACKEL, J. (M)
HALL, F. M. (M)
HALPIN, D. D. (A)
HAMPTON, L. N. (M)
HARDINA, E. (A )
HARDING, H. V. (A)
HARLEY, J. B. (A)
HARLOW, J. B. (M)
HARRIS, C. E. (A)
HARRISON, H. C. (F)
HEIDEGGER, H. F. (A)
HENABERY, J. E. (A)
330
LIST OF MEMBERS
[J. S. M. P. E.
HENKEL, J. F. (4)
HENNESSY, W. W. (A)
HERRIOTT, W. (A)
HIATT, A. (M)
HICKMAN, C. N. (A)
HlCKMAN, K. (F)
HOCHHEIMER, R. (M)
HOGE, F. D. (F)
HOLLANDER, H. (M)
HOLSLAG, R. C. (M)
HOPKINS, J. J. (M)
HORNIDGE, H. T. (M)
HORNSTEIN, J. C. (M)
HORSTMAN, C. F. (M)
HUBBARD, R. C. (F)
HUMPHREY, G. H. (A)
HUNT, F. L. (F)
HYNDMAN, D. E. (F)
IRBY, F. S. (M)
IVINS, C. F. (A)
JOHNSON, B. W. (A)
JONES, J. G. (F)
JONES, L. (A)
JONES, L. A. (F)
JOY, J. M. (M)
KALLMAN, K. (A)
KEITH, C. R. (M)
KELLER, A. C. (A)
KENDE, G. (Af)
KERKOW, H. (A)
KERST, W. D. (A)
KING, T. P. (A)
KLAUSSEN, B. (A)
KLEBER, J. O. (M)
KNOX, H. G. (F)
Kocsis, P. (A)
KOHLER, J. J. (A)
KOSSMAN, H. R. (A)
KREUZER, B. (M)
KURTZ, J. A. (A)
LAKEWITZ, F. S. (A)
LANE, G. (M)
LANG, A. (A)
LAPAT, E. P. (A)
LAPORTE, N. M. (F)
LAWRENCE, J. F. (A)
LEE, A. A. (A)
LENIGAN, T. E. (A)
LENZ, F. (A)
LESTER, H. M. (A)
LEVENTHAL, J. F. (F)
LEWIN, G. (M)
LINS, P. A. (M)
LITTLE, W. F. (F}
LOTT, H. O. (A)
LUNDAHL, T. (M)
LUNDIE, E. S. (A)
MACILVAIN, K. H. (A)
MACLEOD, J. S. (Af)
MACNAIR, W. A. (F)
MANHEIMER, J. R. (Af)
MANN, R. G. (A}
MARCHESSAULD, C. E. (A)
MARKS, L. (A)
MARSHALL, F. R. (A)
MASTER, R. P. (A)
MATTHEWS, G. E. (F)
MAURER, J. A. (A)
MCBURNEY, J. W. (M)
McGuiRE, P. A. (F)
MCLARTY, H. D. (A)
MEES, C. E. K. (F)
MESSITER, H. M. (A)
MIEHLING, R. (M)
MILLER, J. A. (F)
MILLER, O. E. (A)
MILLER, R. A. (M)
MINNERLY, N. H. (A)
MlSENER, G. C. (M)
MITCHELL, M. N. (A)
MOSKOWITZ, J. H. (A}
MULLER, C. (A)
NADELL, A. (Af)
NARIAN, S. (A)
NEU, O. F. (M)
NlCHOLIDES, E. C. (A)
NICHOLSON, R. F. (F)
NIVISON, W. S. (A)
NIXON, I. L. (F)
NORLING, J. A. (Af)
O'BRIEN, B. C. (A)
O'BRIEN, M. D. (4)
O'KEEFE, G. A. (A}
OSWALD, C. G. (A)
OWENS, F. H. (A)
PACENT; L. G. (F)
Mar., 1936]
LIST OF MEMBERS
331
PALMER, M. W. (M)
PAULINI, E. T. (4)
PECK, W. H. (A)
PERSE, I. S. (A)
PFANNENSTIEHL, H. (M)
PFEIFF, C. (Af)
PHILIPP, J. F. (A)
PONDE, D. B. (A)
POPOVICI, G. G. (M)
PRICE, A. F. (M)
PRILIK, M. R. (A)
PRINCE, L. S. (A)
PULLER, G. (A)
RABINOWITZ, D. J. (A)
RAMSAYE, T. (F)
RASMUSSEN, R. T. (M)
RAVEN, A. L. (M)
RAY, M. (A)
RAYTON, W. B. (F)
RENKE, A. (A)
REPP, W. H. (M)
REYNOLDS, J. L. (M)
RICHARD, A. J. (M)
RICHARDSON, F. H. (F)
RICHTER, A. (A)
RIES, P. D. (A)
RIFKIN, J. L. (M)
RIST, K. (A)
ROBERTS, F. W. (A)
ROBILLARD, P. M. (M)
RODWELL, L. A. (A)
ROGALLI, N. J. (A)
ROGERS, F. B. (A)
ROGERS, F. B. (A)
ROLAND, E. C. (A)
ROLLINS, F. S., JR. (A)
ROSENSWEIG, M. (M)
Ross, A. (A)
Ross, C. (Af)
Ross, C. H. (A)
Ross, O. A. (M)
RUBIN, H. (F)
RUSSELL, W. F. (Af)
SAILLIARD, J. H. (4)
SALVING, S. (A)
SANDSTONE, J. (A)
SANDVIK, O. (F)
SANTEE, H. B. (F)
SAWYER, J. W. (A)
SCHABBEHAR, E. A. (A)
SCHAEFFER, F. H. (A)
SCHARMANN, P. G. (4)
SCHLANGER, B. (M)
SCHMID, F. (Af)
SCHMIDT, W. A. (F)
SCHWENGELER, C. E. (M)
SCOTT, D. W. (M}
SCRIVEN, E. O. (F)
SHEA, T. E. ( F)
SHEPPARD, S. E. (F)
SHNIPKIN, D. (4)
SIGNOR, G. H. (A)
SMACK, J. C. (4)
SMITH, F. (A)
SPACE, K. F. (A)
SPENCE, J. L., JR. (F)
SPONABLE, E. I. (F)
SPRAY, J. H. (F)
STAUD, C. J. (Af)
STEELE, L. L. (M)
STEINER, R. (4)
STEINHOF, E. G. (M)
STEPONAITIS, A. (A)
STOLLER, H. M. (F)
STONE, J. H. (A)
STROCK, R. O. (Af)
TALWAR, R. C. (A)
TANN, W. L. (A)
TANNEY, J. A. (M)
TEITEL, A. (A)
TERPENING, L. H. (Af)
TERRY, R. V. (M)
TETZLAFF, E. F. (A)
THOMPSON, W. S. (A)
TIZIAN, S. L. (A)
TOTH, A. F. (A)
TOWNSEND, L. M. (A)
TUCKERMAN, L. P. (A)
TULPAN, S. (A)
TUTTLE, C. M. (F)
TUTTLE, H. B. (Af)
TYLER, K. (A)
VERLINSKY, V. (4)
VICTOR, A. F. (F)
VIETH, L. (A)
VOLF, C. A. (A)
332
LIST OF MEMBERS
[J. S. M. P. E.
WADE, F. H. (A)
WALL, J. M. (F)
WALL, W. I. (A)
WALLER, F. (M)
WALTER, H. L. (A)
WARD, E. J. (M)
WARD, J. S. (F)
WATSON, J. S., JR. (F)
WEBER, C. M. (F)
WENTE, E. C. (F)
WENZ, A. (A)
WESTON, J. C. (A)
WESTWATER, W. (M}
WHITMORE, W. (M)
WIGGIN, L. J. (A)
WlLLARD, T. W. (A)
WILLIAMS, S. B. (4)
WILLIFORD, E. A. (F)
WILSON, C. K. (M)
WINKLER, F. W. (A}
WlSSMANN, J. (A)
WOLF, S. K. (F)
WYND, C. L. A. (M)
YAGER, H. B. (M)
YOUNG, H. A. (4)
YOUNGER, C. A. (A)
ZANETTI, E. (A)
ZELONY, E. M. (M}
North Carolina
RAMSEY, R. W. (A)
STONE, W. P. (A)
Ohio
CANADY, D. R. (M)
CARLSON, F. E. (4)
CARPENTER, E. S. (If)
COPLEY, J. S. (A)
CROSS, W. E. (A)
CUNNINGHAM, O. J. (.4)
DASH, C. C. (M)
DOWNES, A. C. (70
ESHELMAN, G. M., JR. (A)
FARNHAM, R. E. (F)
FLANAGAN, J. T. (M)
GARDINER, F. R. (A)
GEIB, E. R. (70
GELMAN, J. N. (M)
GILES, R. H. (M)
GILSDORF, W. R. (A)
GORDON, I. (A)
HAMILTON, S. H. (A)
HERTNER, J. H. (If)
JOY, D. B. (F)
KERMAN, E. W. (A}
KUNZMANN, W. C. (F)
LANGFORD, L. P. (M)
LEROY, C. (A)
McCoRD, C. T. (A)
NELSON, O. (M)
PORTER, L. C. (70
PRICE, G. W. (A)
READ, E. A. (A)
ROCK, J. B. (A)
RUSSELL, K. B. (A)
SHAFER, L. J. (A)
STEELY, J. D. (A)
STRONG, H. H. (70
VALLEN, E. J. (A)
WATSON, E. M. (A)
WELMAN, V. A. (M)
WlNKELMAN, H. (A)
WITT, E. H. (A)
WORSTELL, R. E. (4)
Oklahoma
BARBER, C. E. (A)
WOOD, W. H. (A)
Oregon
MILLER, R. (A)
Pennsylvania
ABRAMS, S. (A)
BETTELLI, F. J. (A)
BIBEN, B. F. (A)
BLOOM, R. B. (4)
BLUMBERG, H. (.4)
CLARK, J. P. (M)
COHEN, C. (A)
COHEN, S. (A)
DAVIS, S. I. (A)
DEFRENES, J. (M)
Mar., 1936]
DEIVERNOIS, P. J. (4)
ESSIG, A. G. (A)
EVANS, G. W. (A)
FREEMAN, A. B. (4)
HANNA, C. R. (F)
IVES, F. E. (tf)
LIPMAN, H. H. (M)
MAIRE, H. J. (M}
NEILL, C. B. (A)
NORTON, R. (4)
O'LEARY, J. S. (A)
OLLINGER, C. G. (A)
PRESGRAVE, C. (4)
RICHMOND, J. (A}
Rizzo, C. (A)
SAMUELS, I. (M)
SCHMIDT, W. E. (4)
SEIFFERT, S. A. (A)
SHIRAS, A. (A)
STUPRICH, P. (4)
UNDERBILL, C. R., JR. (A)
Rhode Island
ALTIERB, E. S. A. (A)
DUFFY, C. J. (A}
WILDING, W. A. (^4)
South Dakota
HARDMAN, W. F. (4)
Tennessee
CROWE, H. B. (A)
CURLE, C. E. (A)
FERGUSON, D. C. (4)
THOMAS, A. R. (A}
WAGNER, V. C. (A)
Texas
CHAPMAN, A. B. (4)
FRASCH, H. H. (A)
HULAN, A. G. (A)
JAMIESON, H. V. (M)
Virginia
McLEMORE, J. R. (A)
LIST OF MEMBERS
333
Washington
BRADSHAW, A. E. (M)
SHEARER, B. F. (A)
West Virginia
DUDIAK, F. (A)
MYERS, W. D. (A)
Wisconsin
ELLIS, F. E., JR. (4)
HUDSON, W. (4)
OLSON, O. E. (4)
RENIER, A. H. (A)
SMITH, R. A. (A)
Argentina
BRAGGIO, J. C. (A)
Australia
ALLSOP, R. (F)
BUDDEN, P. H. (M)
BUSHBY, T. R. W. (A)
CROSS, C. E. (A)
DYSON, C. H. (4)
EDWARDS, N. (A)
FLINT, A. B. (A)
HART, K. R. M. (A)
HELLO WELL, T. (4)
HIGGINS, T. G. (A)
JEFFERY, F. A. (4)
MURDOCH, S. E. (^4)
PARRISH, H. C. (A)
ROUSE, J. J. (M)
SARGENT, R. (4)
SMITH, A. C. (A)
VAUGHAN, R. (M)
WRIGHT, A. (A)
Austria
BOEHM, H. L. (M}
BUCEK, H. (A)
MUELLER, E. (A)
SCHROTT, P. R. VON (A)
THALLMAYER, H. J. (A}
334
LIST OF MEMBERS
Lf. S. M. P. E.
Bermuda
MONKS, C. H. (A)
Brazil
BARZEE, G. W. (4)
PINTO, O. D. (4)
Canada
ALEXANDER, J. M. (A)
ARMAND, V. (A)
ATKINSON, S. C. (A)
BADGLEY, F. C. (F)
BATTLE, G. H. (A)
BOURNE, R. E. (4)
BOYLEN, J. C. (M)
BURNS, J. J. (A)
CARPENTER, H. J. (4)
CARTER, W. S. (A)
COOPER, J. A. (A)
DENTELBECK, C. (M)
DOBSON, H. T. (A)
FOLEY, T. E. (A}
FOURNIER, G. (A)
GOLDHAMER, S. A. (A)
GOLDIN, H. (A)
HARRIS, E. (A)
HEWSON, J. H. (A)
HOAD, T. C. (A)
JECKELL, W. H. R. (A)
KERRIN, J. A. (A)
LANE, W. H. (M)
LEWIS, B. C. (A)
MATHEWSON, E. G. (.4)
MCCLELLAND, T. H. (A)
McGuiRE, J. (A)
METZGER, M. (4)
NORRISH, B. E. (M)
OLIVER, W. J. (A)
PATTON, G. E. (M)
QUICK, C. J. (M)
RICHARD, J. (4)
RISEWICK, W. J. (A)
SHORNEY, C. R. (-4)
SOPER, W. E. (A)
SPRAGUE, A. (A)
STRINGER, J. (A)
TURNBULL, A. D. (M)
ZUMAR, A. B. (A)
Canal Zone
KAPLAN, L. (M)
China
CHANG, S. C. (A)
CHOW, K. (A)
DAN, D. Y. (A)
FAN, W. S. (A)
GUERIN, B. C., JR. (A)
Hsu, S. F. (A)
KRUGERS, G. E. A. (M)
LAN, W. S. (A)
LAY, M. W. (A)
MAR, S. T. (A)
O'BOLGER, R. E. (M)
TORNOVSKY, I. M. (A)
WONG, H. S. U)
WONG, T. (A)
Cuba
CHIBAS, J. E. (A)
Czechoslovakia
BRICHTA, J. C. (A)
England
ALDERSON, R. G. (A)
BLAKE, E. E. (A)
BUSH, A. J. (A)
CABIROL, C. (M}
CANTRELL, W. A. (A)
CHAMPION, C. H. (F)
CLARKE, W. H. (A)
COOPER, M. F. (A)
DANCE, H. R. (A)
ELWELL, C. F. (M)
FAITHFULL, G. (M)
FITZPATRICK, J. M. S. (A)
FORD, W. B. (A)
GARLING, W. F. (M)
GATHERCOLE, ]. (A)
GENOCK, E. P. (4)
GRIFFITHS, P. H. (M)
Mar., 1936]
LIST OF MEMBERS
335
HUDSON, G. (,4)
JOHN, W. E. (M)
KAYE, L. K. (A)
KERSHAW, C (F)
KlMBERLEY, P. ( M )
KING, H. V. (A)
LAMB, E. E. (M)
LAWLEY, H. V. (M)
LUCAS, G. S. C. (M)
LUKE, E. (M)
MCDOWELL, J. B. (4)
McMASTER, D. (F)
NlEPMANN, C. H. (M)
ORAM, E. (A)
OSBORNE, A. W. (M)
OSMAN, D. E. (A)
PARKINS, C. F. (M)
PLANSKOY, L. (M)
PONTIUS, R. B. (A)
RENWICK, F. F. (F)
ROGERS, J. E. (M)
ROWSON, S. (F)
Ruox, M. (F)
SCARLETT, J. J. Y. (A)
SINCLAIR, A. T. (4)
SKITTRELL, J. G. (Af)
SMITH, J. W. W. (A)
TERRANEAU, R. (F)
TOUZE, G. (M)
TUCK, F. A. (M)
UNDERBILL, J. L. (M)
WARMISHAM, A. (F)
WATKINS, S. S. A. (F)
WEBBER, A. C. (A)
WIDDOWS, C. G. (A)
WILLIAMS, G. A. (A)
WILLIAMSON, T. H. (A)
WILSON, S. K. (4)
WlNTERMAN, C. (M)
WOLFF, E. H. (A)
WRATTEN, I. D. (F)
France
ABRIBAT, M. (M)
ALBERT, G. (A)
ASCHEL, H. (4)
BERTIN, H. (M)
BUREL, L. H. (A)
BURNAT, H. (A)
CARRERE, J. G. (A)
CHEFTEL, A. M. (M)
CHRETIEN, H. (F)
CORDONUIER, J. (A)
COTTET, A. (A)
COURMES, M. (A)
DALOTEL, M. (AT)
DE BRETAGNE, J. (4)
DEBRIE, A. (F)
DIDIEE, L. J. J. (A)
EGROT, L. G. (M)
FIELD, A. (A)
FISHOFF, L. A. (A)
GERNOLLE, N. (A)
HOPPIN, C. (A)
HOTCHKISS, F. H. (M)
KELBER, M. (A)
KRAEMER, G. I. (M)
LAIR, C. (M)
LAWRENCE, T. (M)
LECOQ, J. (4)
LESLIE, F. (A)
LIVERMAN, C. (A)
LUMIERE, L. (IT)
MARESCHAL, G. (4)
MARETTE, J. (Af)
MATHOT, J. A. (M)
NATAN, B. I. (A)
SCHMITZ, E. C. (M)
STEINER, W. J. F. (A)
THEREMIN, W. (A)
WILD, G. (M)
Germany
BIELICKE, W. F. (F)
BUSCH, L. N. (M)
BUSSE, F. (F)
DAEHR, H. (4)
ENGL, J. B. (F)
GEYER, W. (M)
JOACHIM, H. E. A. (M)
KRASNA-KRAUS, A. (M)
LICHTE, H. (F)
LlNGG, A. (A)
LUMMERZHEIM, H. J. (M)
MECHAU, E. (F)
336
LIST OF MEMBERS
[J. S. M. P. E.
PETERSON, F. W.
REEB, O. G. L. (Af)
ROSEMAN, I. (Af)
ROSENTHAL, A. (.4)
WASCHNECK, K. (M)
Hawaii
ARAKI, J. K. (A)
BAKER, R. J. (4)
FARVER, B. R. (4)
FAUST, A. U)
FERRENA, W. C. (4)
FUNATSU, H. K. (A)
IWAO, W. F. (A)
KING, R. P. (A)
LA CHAPELLE, L. (M)
LEARNARD, H. P. (4)
LEWBEL, S. (-4)
MCKEE, T. A. (4)
WOODWARD, E. K., JR. (.4)
Holland
HALBERTSMA, N. A. (<4)
KOTTE, J. J. (A)
TIMMER, A. L. (A)
VAN BREUKELEN, J. (-4)
Hungary
LOHR, J. F. (M)
MORTON, T. (A)
India
AHLUWALIA, B. S. (M)
ARORA, P. N. 04)
BAKHSHI, M. N. 04)
BALI, D. N. (A)
BHALCHANDRA, M. C. (A)
FAZALBHOY, Y. A. 04)
GOGATE, G. G. (4)
GUPTA, D. K. 04)
HANDA, D. (A)
HANDA, G. C. 04)
JADAV, B. V. (A)
LAL, G. D. (Af)
LEISHMAN, E. D. (M)
MALHTRA, M. N. (A)
MATHUR, R. D. (.4)
MEHTA, H. S. (M)
MISTRY, D. L. (M)
MISTRY, M. L. (M)
MOTWANE, V. G. (M)
NlGAN, C. S. (A)
PATEL, K. K. (.4)
PATEL, M. B. (A)
PHATAK, R. K. (A)
Pu, M. N. U)
SHANTARAM, V. (M)
SHIRODKAR, G. N. (A)
SOHONI. B. A. (Af)
Soi, B. N. (A)
SUBEDAR, P. C. (A)
SUTARIA, S. F. (A)
TENDULKAR, H. D. (Af)
TORNEY, R. G. 04)
Italy
AMATI, L. (A)
BlTTMANN, H. (A)
CECCHI, U. 04)
DE FEO, L. (M)
FINARDI, E. V. (A)
Rossi, P. (A)
TRENTINO, V. (-4)
Japan
AlKAWA, S. (A)
Aocm, C. (A)
AOYAMA, K. (A)
ASANO, S. (-4)
CORBIN, R. M. (Af)
DE MALLIE, R. B. (Af)
HARUKI, S. (F)
HELBLING, W. E. (A)
HlRASAWA, I. (A)
KAMEI, K. (A)
KANO, J. H. 04)
KASAI, K. (A)
KONDO, T. (4)
MANPOH, K. (.4)
MASAOKA, K. (-4)
MASUTANI, R. (4)
MATSUZAWA, M. (4)
Mar., 1936 J
LIST OF MEMBERS
337
MINO, T. J. (A)
NAGASE, T. (Af)
OHTA, V. (A)
OSAWA, Y. (Af)
SAEKI, R. E. (4)
SHIMAZAKA, K. (.4)
SUGIURA, R. (Af)
TAMAMURA, K. (A)
TANAKA, E. (4)
TSUCHIHASHI, H. (4)
YASUI, S. (A)
Mexico
DE PEREZ, J. (A)
FERNANDEZ, M. A. (A)
New Zealand
BANKS, C. (M)
BLENKARNE, P. C. (A)
DARBY, E. (A)
DODDRELL, E. T., JR. (
DONALD, J. McL. (4)
FOUNTAIN, A. (4)
GILL, K. (A)
HODGSON, W. (A)
SPARKS, F. (A)
STEED, R. C., JR. (A)
VINSEN, S. E. (A)
WHEELER, E. A. (A}
WHEELER, W. L. (A)
WYATT, C. (A)
Norway
GIHBSSON, L. (4)
Philippine Islands
PERRY, C. (A}
Poland
FALQUET, A. (4)
ROCHOWICZ, S. (-4)
Portugal
EDBR, F. B. (Af)
Roumania
ORB AN, R. F. (Af)
Russia
CHORINE, A. F. (Af)
JACHONTOW, E. G. (Af)
Scotland
CRAWFORD, W. C. (^4)
HAMILTON, D. W. (4)
JAY, R. L. (M)
POOLE, G. F. (A)
Spain
ARAGONES, D. (Af)
BLANCK, R. M. (M)
BLANCO, E. (4)
BUENO, P. G. (A)
DE URGOITI, R. N. (Af)
MORRAL, F. R. (4)
ROBERT, A. R. (4)
TEJERO-SANZ, M. (4)
ZEPPELIN, H. V. (A)
Switzerland
HESS, H. P. (A)
Wales
PARLEY, W. C. (A)
SPRING, 1936, CONVENTION
CHICAGO, ILLINOIS
EDGEWATER BEACH HOTEL
APRIL 27-30, INCLUSIVE
Officers and Committees in Charge
PROGRAM AND FACILITIES
W. C. KUNZMANN, Convention V ice-President
J. I. CRABTREE, Editorial Vice-President
O. M. GLUNT, Financial Vice-President
G. E. MATTHEWS, Chairman, Papers Committee
E. R. GEIB, Chairman, Membership Committee
W. WHITMORE, Chairman, Publicity Committee
H. GRIFFIN, Chairman, Projection Committee
O. F. NEU, Chairman, Apparatus Exhibit
LOCAL ARRANGEMENTS AND RECEPTION COMMITTEE
C. H. STONE, Chairman
R. P. BEDORE . F. P. HECK J. H. McNABB
O. B. DEPUE B. J. KLEERUP R. F. MITCHELL
H. A. DE¥RY S. A. LUKES C. G. OLLINGER
J. GOLDBERG J. E. McAuLEY B. E. STECHBART
CONVENTION PROJECTION COMMITTEE
H. GRIFFIN, Chairman
L. R. Cox J. GOLDBERG J. E. McAuLEY
H. A. DE¥RY S. A. LUKES H. RYAN
Officers and Members of Chicago Local No. 110, I. A. T. S. E.
APPARATUS EXHIBIT
O. F. NEU, Chairman
H. A. DEVRY S. HARRIS
J. FRANK, JR. C. H. STONE
LADIES' RECEPTION COMMITTEE
MRS. C. H. STONE, Hostess
assisted by
MRS. B. W. DEPUE MRS. S. A. LUKES
MRS. H. A. DEVRY MRS. R. F. MITCHELL
MRS. F. B. HECK MRS. B. E. STECHBART
338
OFFICERS OF THE SOCIETY 339
BANQUET COMMITTEE
W. C. KUNZMANN, Chairman
O. B. DEPUE J. H. KURLANDER S. A. LUKES
J. GOLDBERG S. HARRIS R. F. MITCHELL
H. GRIFFIN C. H. STONE
HEADQUARTERS
The Headquarters of the Convention will be the Edgewater Beach Hotel,
where excellent accommodations and Convention facilities are assured. A
special suite will be provided for the ladies. Rates for SMPE delegates,
European plan, will be as follows:
One person, room and bath •. $3 . 00
Two persons, double bed and bath 5. 00
Two persons, twin beds and bath 5 . 00
Parlor suite and bath, for two 10. 00 and 12. 00
Room reservation cards will be mailed to the membership of the Society in the
near future, and every one who plans to attend the Convention should return his
card to the Hotel promptly in order to be assured of satisfactory accommodations.
A special rate of fifty cents a day has been arranged for SMPE delegates who
motor to the Convention, in the Edgewater Beach Hotel fireproof garage. Pri-
vate de luxe motor coaches operated by the Hotel will be available for service be-
tween the Hotel and the Chicago Loop area.
TECHNICAL SESSIONS
An attractive program of technical papers and presentations is being arranged
by the Papers Committee. All sessions and film programs will be held in the
East Lounge of the Hotel.
APPARATUS EXHIBIT
An exhibit of newly developed motion picture apparatus will be held in the
West Lounge of the Hotel, to which all manufacturers of equipment are invited to
contribute. The apparatus to be exhibited must either be new or embody new
features of interest from a technical point of view. No charge will be made
for space. Information concerning the exhibit and reservations for space should
be made by writing to the Chairman of the Exhibits Committee, Mr. O. F. Neu,
addressed to the General Office of the Society.
SEMI-ANNUAL BANQUET
The Semi-Annual Banquet and Dance of the Society will be held in the Ball-
room of the Edgewater Beach Hotel on Wednesday, April 29th, at 7:30 P.M.
Addresses will be delivered by eminent members of the motion picture industry,
followed by dancing and entertainment.
INSPECTION TRIPS
Arrangements may be made, upon request at the registration desk, to visit
and inspect, in small groups, various laboratories, studios, and equipment man-
340 SPRING CONVENTION [J. S. M. P. E.
factories in the Chicago area. Firms that have extended invitations to such
groups are:
Burton Holmes Films, Inc. J. E. McAuley Manufacturing
Bell & Howell Company Company
Chicago Film Laboratories, Inc. Jam Handy Pictures Corp.
Da-Lite Screen Company, Inc. Jenkins & Adair, Inc.
Enterprise Optical Manufacturing National Screen Service, Inc.
Company Western Electric Company
Herman H. DeVry, Inc. Wilding Picture Productions, Inc.
Holmes Projector Company Society of Visual Education
POINTS OF INTEREST
To list all the points of interest in and about Chicago would require too much
space, but among them may be mentioned the following:
Field Museum of Natural History Oriental Institute
Adler Planetarium and Astronomical John G. Shedd Aquarium
Museum Lincoln Park Aquarium
Art Institute Lincoln Park Zoological Gardens
Museum of Science and Industry Chicago Zoological Gardens
Chicago Historical Society Grant Park
Academy of Science University of Chicago
Lincoln Park Loyola University
Northwestern University
Complete information concerning and directions for visiting these places will
be available at the Hotel.
RECREATION
A miniature nine-hole golf course, putting greens, and regulation tennis courts,
maintained by the Hotel, will be available to SMPE delegates registered at the
Hotel. Details will be available at the registration desk. Special diversions
will be provided for the ladies, and passes to local theaters will be available to all
delegates registering.
PROGRAM
Monday, April 27th.
9:00 a.m. Registration
Society business
10:00 a.m.-12:00 p.m. Committee reports
Technical papers program
12:30 p.m. Informal Get-Together Luncheon for members, their
families, and guests. Several prominent speakers
will address the gathering.
2:00 p.m.-5:00 p.m. Technical papers program
8:00 p.m. Exhibition of newly released motion picture features
and shorts.
Mar., 1936] SPRING CONVENTION 341
Tuesday, April 28th.
10:00 a.m.-12:00 p.m. Technical papers program
2:00 p.m.-5:00 p.m. Technical papers program
The evening of this day is left free for recreation,
visiting, etc.
Wednesday, April 29th. 9
10:00 a.m.-12:00 p.m. Technical papers program
The afternoon of this day is left free for recreation
and for visits to the plants of various Chicago
firms serving the motion picture industry.
7:30 p.m. Semi-Annual Banquet and Dance of the SMPE:
speakers and entertainment.
Thursday, April 30th.
10:00 a.m.-12:00 p.m. Technical papers program
2:00 p.m.-5:00 p.m. Technical papers program
Society business
Adjournment of the Convention
ATTENTION! AUTHORS OF PAPERS
The time allotted for presentation of papers at the next meeting has been re-
stricted by the Board of Governors of the Society. Morning sessions will begin
at 10:00 A.M. and close promptly at 12:00 noon. Afternoon sessions will begin
at 2:00 P.M. and close promptly at 5:00 P.M. It is, therefore, very important that
all authors consider carefully the problem of presenting their papers in the most
effective manner. The following suggestions represent useful ideas which every
author should read and apply when delivering his paper.
(1) Arrangement of Material. — Manuscripts prepared for publication are
seldom suitable for oral presentation. The paper should convey clearly to the
listener: (a) the purpose of the work; (6) the experimental method; (c) the
results obtained; and (d) conclusions. The nature of the material and the time
available for presentation will determine the emphasis to be placed upon each
subdivision. The author should make certain, by trial with his watch, that the
essential points can be adequately presented in the time allotted to the paper.
(2) Statement of Purpose. — Orient the audience clearly as to the nature and
purpose of the work. A lengthy historical review is generally out of place.
(3) Technic. — Describe the experimental method employed so as to indicate
the principles involved. Omit details of apparatus or procedure unless there is
some particularly novel development. Such data may belong in the published
paper but may bore the audience.
(4) Statement of Results. — Present the results graphically, preferably with
diagrams. Lantern slides are more clearly seen than hand-drawn charts. The
slides should be of standard size (3.25 X 4 inches) and should project clearly
upon the screen. Regardless of who has made the charts or slides, try them from
the point of view of the audience before presenting them at the meeting. Do not
342 SPRING CONVENTION
read tables, a procedure that wastes time and destroys interest; but point out
the general trend of the data. Whenever possible, the results of research should
be shown by means of motion pictures, for which adequate projection facilities
will be available.
(5) Conclusions. — Summarize the evidence and discuss the importance of the
results or conclusions to the particular field of research involved.
(6) Manner of Presentation. — Do nol^read from a manuscript verbatim, unless
the material has been written expressly for oral presentation. Speak directly to
the audience in a clear, loud voice. Do not face the blackboard or the screen while
speaking. Articulate distinctly.
Many exceptions to, and modifications of, the suggestions given above may
apply in particular instances. Nevertheless, general adherence to the points
brought out will go far toward eliminating the valid criticisms which have been
aimed at our programs.
Acknowledgment is made to the Society of American Bacteriologists and the
American Chemical Society for many of the ideas incorporated in these sugges-
tions.
G. E. MATTHEWS, Chairman, Papers Committee
SOCIETY SUPPLIES
Reprints of Standards of the SMPE and Recommended Practice may be obtained
from the General Office of the Society at the price of twenty-five cents each.
A limited number of reprints remain of the Report of the Projection Practice
Committee (Oct., 1935) containing the projection room layouts, and "A Glossary
of Color Photography." These may be obtained upon request, accompanied by
six cents in postage stamps.
Copies of Aims and Accomplishments, an index of the Transactions from October,
1916, to June, 1930, containing summaries of all the articles, and author and
classified indexes, may be obtained from the General Office at the price of one
dollar each. Only a limited number of copies remains.
Certificates of Membership may be obtained from the General Office by all
members for the price of one dollar. Lapel buttons of the Society's insignia are
also available at the same price.
Black fabrikoid binders, lettered in gold, designed to hold a year's supply of the
JOURNAL, may be obtained from the General Office for two dollars each. The
purchaser's name and the volume number may be lettered in gold upon the back-
bone of the binder at an additional charge of fifty cents each.
Requests for any of these supplies should be directed to the General Office of
the Society at the Hotel Pennsylvania, New York, N. Y., accompanied by the
appropriate remittance.
JOURNAL
1
OF THE SOCIETY OF
MOTION PICTURE ENGINEERS
Volume XXVI APRIL, 1936 Number 4
CONTENTS
Page
Report of the Committee on Laboratory Practice 345
Rapid Processing Methods. . . .H. PARKER AND J. I. CRABTREE 406
Equipment for Developing and Reading Sensitometric Tests. .
D. R. WHITE 427
Reports of the Research Council of the Academy of Motion
Picture Arts and Sciences :
On Progress in Setting Up Laboratory Controls to Improve
Release Print Quality 441
Compilation of Answers to Questionnaire on Release Print
Laboratory Practice 450
Committees of the Society 462
Spring Convention at Chicago, 111., April 27-30, 1936 467
Papers and Presentations 474
Society Announcements 484
JOURNAL
OF THE SOCIETY OF
MOTION PICTURE ENGINEERS
SYLVAN HARRIS, EDITOR
Board of Editors
J. I. CRABTREE, Chairman
O. M. GLUNT A. C. HARDY L. A. JONES
G. E. MATTHEWS
Subscription to non-members, $8.00 per annum; to members, $5.00 per annum,
included in their annual membership dues; single copies, $1.00. A discount
on subscriptions or single copies of 15 per cent is allowed to accredited agencies.
Order from the Society of Motion Picture Engineers, Inc., 20th and Northampton
Sts., Easton, Pa., or Hotel Pennsylvania, New York, N. Y.
Published monthly at Easton, Pa., by the Society of Motion Picture Engineers.
Publication Office, 20th & Northampton Sts., Easton, Pa.
General and Editorial Office, Hotel Pennsylvania, New York, N. Y.
Entered as second class matter January 15, 1930, at the Post Office at Easton,
Pa., under the Act of March 3, 1879. Copyrighted, 1936, by the Society of
Motion Picture Engineers, Inc.
Papers appearing in this Journal may be reprinted, abstracted, or abridged
provided credit is given to the Journal of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers
and to the author, or authors, of the papers in question. Exact reference as to
the volume, number, and page of the Journal must be given. The Society is
not responsible for statements made by authors.
Officers of the Society
President: HOMER G. TASKER, 3711 Rowland Ave., Burbank, Calif.
Past-President: ALFRED N. GOLDSMITH, 444 Madison Ave., New York, N. Y.
Executive Vice-President: SIDNEY K. WOLF, 250 W. 57th St., New York, N. Y.
Engineering Vice-President: LOYD A. JONES, Kodak Park, Rochester, N. Y.
Editorial Vice-President: JOHN I. CRABTREE, Kodak Park, Rochester, N. Y.
Financial Vice-President: OMER M. GLUNT, 463 West St., New York, N. Y.
Convention Vice-President: WILLIAM C. KUNZMANN, Box 6087, Cleveland, Ohio.
Secretary: JOHN H. KURLANDER, 2 Clearfield Ave., Bloomfield, N. J.
Treasurer: TIMOTHY E. SHEA, 463 West St., New York, N. Y.
Governors
MAX C. BATSEL, Front & Market Sts., Camden, N. J.
LAWRENCE W. DAVEE, 250 W. 57th St., New York, N. Y.
ARTHUR S. DICKINSON, 28 W. 44th St., New York, N. Y.
HERBERT GRIFFIN, 90 Gold St., New York, N. Y.
ARTHUR C. HARDY, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Mass.
EMERY HUSE, 6706 Santa Monica Blvd., Hollywood, Calif.
GERALD F. RACKETT, 823 N. Seward St., Hollywood, Calif.
CARRINGTON H. STONE, 205 W. Wacker Drive, Chicago, 111.
See p. 462 for Technical Committees
REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON LABORATORY PRACTICE*
Summary. — A descriptive report of current methods of handling photosensitive
materials in motion picture laboratories; a rt'sum.' of practical methods of manipulat-
ing raw stock, picture negative, sound-track negative, duplicating picture and sound
negative, regular positive prints, master positive prints, and special films in the various
laboratories of the United States. In addition are presented descriptions of equip-
ment in current use and the general arrangement and appointments of processing
laboratories.
I. Introduction
II. Layout of a processing laboratory
(A) Governing factors
(1) Location
(2) Capacity or total footage output
(3) Efficiency in construction
(4) Efficiency of operation
(5) Cleanliness
(6) Safety
(a) Fire protection equipment
(i) Sprinkler systems
(ii) Fire alarm systems
(Hi) Partitioning, exits, and fire-resisting appliances
(b) Electrical equipment
(i) Equipment for hazardous and non-hazardous locations
(ii) Protection of equipment to prevent fires
(7) General
(a) Operation
(b) Illumination
(c) Air-conditioning
III. History of raw stock
(A) Storage of raw stock in laboratory
(1) Type of storage room
(a) Humidity
(b) Temperature (wet-bulb and dry-bulb)
IV. Method of comparing emulsions
(A) Standards selected
(1) Exposure
* Presented at the Fall, 1935, Meeting at Washington, D. C.
345
346 REPORT OF LABORATORY PRACTICE COMMITTEE [J. s. M. P. E.
(2) Sensitometry and processing (developing)
(5) Densitometry and plotting characteristic curves
(4) Interpretation of curves
(5) Evaluation of curves
V. Printing
(A) Types of printers
(1) Contact (step and continuous)
(a) Double system
(b) Single system
(2) Optical
(a) Picture step (reduction)
(b) Continuous sound reduction
(3) Trick and special
(B) Maintenance of printers
(1) Electrical circuits
(2) Printing lamps (illumination sources)
(3) Machine drives (footage speeds)
(4) Printer light-change system
(5) Printer matching
(C) System of printing
(7) General procedure
(a) Method of timing
(b) Manner of printing
(2) Title making and printing
(a) Superimposed titles
(b) Title insert printing
VI. Processing
(A) Types of machines
(1) Design and construction
(2} Footage speeds
(B) Development
(1) Formulas
(a) Original and replenisher supply
(i) Negative type
(ii) Positive type
(Hi) Sound-track types
(w) Special types
(b) Mix and method of agitation
(c) Temperature control
(2) Machine footage speeds and development times
(3) Control methods (maintenance of constant density and gamma)
(a) Negative control
April, 1936] REPORT OF LABORATORY PRACTICE COMMITTEE 347
(b) Positive control
(c) Sound-track control
(d) Duplication control
(e) Specialized control
(C) Fixation and hardening
(1) Formulas
(2) Temperature control
(5) Time of fixation
(D) Wash water
(1) Fresh water supply
(a) Source
(b) Mode of purification
(2) Time of washing
(a) Preceding fixation
(b) Succeeding fixation
(3) Temperature control
(E) Drying conditions
(1) Type of air-conditioning system
(a) Method of circulating (refer to VI, A)
(b) Velocity of air (refer to VI, A)
(2) Temperature control (wet-bulb and-dry-bulb)
(5) Humidity
(4) Time
(F) Film treatment
(1) For lubrication
(2) For lubrication and preservation
VII. Method of Inspection
(A) Negative
(B) Prints
VIII. General air-conditioning
(A) Laboratory building
(1) Storage vaults
(2) Printing rooms
I. INTRODUCTION
Specific phases of motion picture film development were discussed
in reports by the Committee on Laboratory and Exchange Practice at
two previous Conventions of the Society. This year the Committee
was divided into two separate Committees — the Exchange Practice
Committee and the Laboratory Practice Committee.
348 REPORT OF LABORATORY PRACTICE COMMITTEE [j. s. M. P. E.
After careful consideration the newly organized Laboratory Practice
Committee decided it would be best to present to the Society a tutorial
report of the current methods of handling photosensitive materials
in motion picture laboratories. As no general information on labora-
tory procedure had ever been published before, it was felt that a gen-
eral summary of current laboratory practice might well serve as a
helpful reference and would eventually lead to the Society's
making recommendations and suggestions that would increase
the ease of laboratory manipulation and improve both the photo-
graphic quality on the screen and the sound quality in the theater.
The following pages contain a resume of some practical methods of
manipulating picture negative, sound-track negative, duplicating
picture and sound negative, regular positive prints, master positive
prints, and special films in the various laboratories of the United
States.
II. LAYOUT OF PROCESSING LABORATORY
There is probably no concrete method governing the layout of
ideal floor plans for a motion picture processing laboratory, but
rather, the special arrangements that are chosen depend upon the
proportion of the different types of work that are done, the variations
in the processes that are employed, and several other factors. In the
planning some prime factors to be considered are the desirability of
location; the total capacity or total footage; the efficiency of con-
struction, as to building, floor plans, and equipment; the operating
efficiency for maximum and minimum capacities within overhead ex-
penditure; the cleanliness of each department; the safety factors; and
the general problem of operation, illumination, and air-conditioning.
The location depends upon the availability of a site in proximity
to the source of business and the source of power, raw materials, water,
and other services. The total capacity or footage output is usually
gauged upon the basis of present and future prospects for business.
The most efficient construction avoids unnecessary walls, partitions,
and inconvenient room shapes, and careful consideration is given to
partitions in relation to the building structure and between rooms,
vaults, and sections where film is stored. Attention is given to piping,
electrical conduits, and ventilation duct layouts to minimize the
cost of installation and construction. The flow of materials is so
arranged that the plant can be operated efficiently and economically.
Film should not be allowed to accumulate in any one place, and to
April, 1936] REPORT OF LABORATORY PRACTICE COMMITTEE 349
avoid such accumulation suitable means of transportation from point
to point are provided. When possible, the layout of the plant is such
that each operation on the film follows in sequence, with the shipping
department easily accessible to an exit but near the final handling
room.
Extreme cleanliness must be observed if the ultimate in clean
negatives and prints is to be attained. Walls and floor surfaces
should be treated with paints or other materials that will collect a
minimum of dust and dirt. Few laboratories are air-conditioned
throughout the entire building, but when they are, their problem of
cleanliness is lessened considerably.
A detailed description of sprinkler systems, fire-alarm systems,
partitioning, exits, fire-resisting appliances, electrical equipment in
hazardous and non-hazardous locations, and protection of electrical
equipment to avoid fire hazards does not seem necessary in this
report, as the choice of type and the installation of such equipment
must be approved and accepted by the National Board of Fire Under-
writers and must conform to the National Electrical Code, the local
fire ordinances, and the electrical codes and factory laws as applied to
the motion picture industry. The codes govern the safety factors,
but often the manager of the laboratory assumes additional precau-
tions for the protection of the plant and personnel and to reduce the
insurance costs.
The general problems of operation, illumination, and air-con-
ditioning are discussed in more detail in connection with the following
descriptions of operating methods.
III. HISTORY OF RAW STOCK STORAGE
Immediately upon the receipt of any type of raw stock (regular
printing positive, duplicating negative, master positive, and special
emulsions) the majority of motion picture laboratories store it in a
special room or storage vault set aside for the purpose. Before the
raw stock is placed in the storage vault it is generally uncased, and
the taped cans stored in an upright position in specially designed
racks. In a few laboratories these rooms are air-conditioned, but in
the majority of laboratories they are simply ventilated, and conse-
quently the condition of the air in the storage room approximates
general indoor atmospheric conditions. Usually the dry-bulb tem-
perature ranges from 65° to 80°F., and the relative humidity ranges
from 30 to approximately 70 per cent. Most laboratories have small
350 REPORT OF LABORATORY PRACTICE COMMITTEE [J. S. M. P. E.
vaults just off the printing room that are air-conditioned like the
printing room. The film is given to the printers after it is untaped,
uncanned, and the black paper removed. In laboratories where a
conditioned room or a conditioned vault is not adjacent to the
printing room, the film is taken directly from storage. Frequently,
at the beginning of the working day, sufficient film is uncanned to
supply the printers for that day or for an eight-hour period.
IV. METHODS OF EMULSION COMPARISON
As a standard of exposure for emulsion comparison and for control
tests a number of laboratories now employ the Eastman type IIB
FIG. 1. Eastman 115 sensitometer; for exposing sensitometric
strips on all photosensitive materials.
sensitometer (Fig. 1) for sensitometric testing, and in some cases
various types of step tablet sensitometers (Fig. 2). For practical
visual print comparison a carefully maintained continuous or step
printer is sometimes employed using a selected picture negative as
the light modulator.
The master printer for printing the negative selected as a standard
of reference for picture quality is often given special attention.
Special care is taken to keep the current supplied to the lamp constant,
April, 1936] REPORT OF LABORATORY PRACTICE COMMITTEE 351
and the lamp is carefully inspected for defects and seasoned before
use so as to assure uniformity of illumination at the gate. The
uniformity of speed of the machines is also carefully checked.
The care of printers and printing mechanisms will be discussed
later.
Upon receipt of a new emulsion number of any raw stock it is ac-
cepted practice to impress upon 10- to 25-ft. lengths taken from
one to five rolls (selected at random) of the new and the former
coatings, two to five sensitometered strips on the sensitometer using
the positive or negative set-up, according to the film being used.
FIG. 2. Eastman model X step tablet sensitometer; for exposing sensitometric
strips on all photosensitive materials.
Obviously, the positive set-up is used for those photosensitive mate-
ials that have positive film characteristics, and the negative set-up
'or those that have negative types of characteristics. Six- to 100-ft.
engths of both the new and the former emulsions are printed on the
selected printer from the selected negative accepted as a standard
of reference. The prints on all strips are made at the step setting that
was correct for the former coating. All sensitometric strip ex-
>osures and prints are then developed together by the appropriate
development process, either negative or positive, for the time that
produced the desired gamma, density, and photographic quality that
was adjudged satisfactory on the former coating. Then the step
Densities on the sensitometered strip are read on a suitable densitonj-
352 REPORT OF LABORATORY PRACTICE COMMITTEE [J. S. M. P. E
eter (Figs. 3, 4, and 5 illustrate some of the types available) and
plotted by the recognized method described by Jones.1 From the
plotted, averaged, sensitometered strips the difference in gamma and
density speed can be ascertained for the predetermined development
time, and by visual judgment the timer can discern the change of
printer point, if any, necessary to produce the same density in the new
emulsion as was obtained in the former emulsion. Often a re test is
made at the new printer point assignment, and the new emulsion is
FIG. 3. Eastman direct-reading densitome-
ter; for reading densities on all types of
films and plates.
developed for the time necessary to produce in it a gamma equivalent
to the gamma of the former emulsion, which is the gamma that the
laboratory has determined to be the most suitable to obtain the best
quality. This procedure is of particular importance in testing posi-
tive printing stock, as release prints must be held to fairly close toler-
ances to obtain uniform screen quality.
Often, after having completed the above-described tests of the new
positive raw stock, prints are made of a production negative in work
upon a 1000-ft. roll of the new and a 1000-ft. roll of the former emul-
sion. From this final test, by visual inspection, a printer point rating
and a development time are assigned to the new emulsion so that
April, 1936]
REPORT OF LABORATORY PRACTICE COMMITTEE 353
prints made with the new emulsions will match approximately the
quality obtained with the former emulsion. Sometimes laboratories
depend upon their sensitometric tests, and assign printer point
settings for positive emulsions by drawing perpendiculars from the
point of unit density on the straight -line portion of the plotted char-
(Courtesy of Electrical Research Products, Inc.)
FIG. 4. Photoelectric cell densitometer ; for reading
sound-track densities.
acteristic curves to the abscissa, or log E axis, to determine the log E
difference between the new and former emulsions. A difference in
log E of 0.05 at equal gammas is equal to a change of about Bell &
Howell model D printer point. This log E difference for printer point
difference varies considerably from laboratory to laboratory, as each
laboratory tends to design its own printer step difference when con-
structing printer light step resistance control panels.
354 REPORT OF LABORATORY PRACTICE COMMITTEE [j. s. M. P. E.
Positive emulsions from coating to coating are generally within
the tolerance of laboratory manipulation for density and gamma,
and, therefore, only slight changes in printer point ratings are neces-
sary. If the new emulsion, however, is slightly higher or slightly
lower in gamma than it should be, as compared with the previous
emulsion, it is usually assigned a development time that will produce
a gamma within the tolerance set by the laboratory. Gammas of
(Courtesy of Electrical Research Products, Inc.)
FIG. 5. KS-6466 densitometer ; for reading densities on all types of
films and plates.
positive prints vary from 1.9 to 2.3, but fall in the majority of
laboratories within the range of 2.0 to 2.2. Most laboratories en-
deavor to maintain with positive prints a uniformity of gamma con-
trol from day to day of 2.0 to 2.2 or ±0.1. Some endeavor to main-
tain the control within ±0.05. The printer point variation is usually
held within ±0.5 printer point, but some laboratories approve prints
that have variations from day to day of ± 1 Bell & Howell printer
point, or the equivalent of ±0.05 in log E exposure value at a density
of unity.
v. PRINTING
(A) Types of Printers
Practically all laboratories, regardless of their footage production,
have several types of printers available for either routine release
April, 1936] REPORT OF LABORATORY PRACTICE COMMITTEE 355
printing or special printing. Upon the introduction of sound into
the motion picture industry, several laboratories decided that it was
expedient and economical to make a few mechanical changes in their
standard printing equipment to handle the sound printing problems,
and this accounts to some extent for the variation in the types of
printers being used.
Standard types of continuous and intermittent printers for image
transfer are in use, but generally each laboratory makes a few changes
in its printers to suit specific operating conditions and to offer greater
ease of manipulation. The scope of this report, however, does not
permit describing in detail the modifications that are made in design
although an attempt will be made to cover more or less schematically
the major changes.
For printing 35-mm. sound-track and picture negative the ma-
chine most commonly used is the Bell & Howell model D printer.
Some of these printers are used just as manufactured, but most of
them are modified in some way, particularly in the light-change
mechanism. It is sometimes more efficient and economical to use
single-operation printers, that is, printers in which the sound-track
negative and the picture negative are printed simultaneously. Falling
into this class are modified Bell & Howell printers, Duplex step
printers, and special printers designed and constructed in accordance
with the specifications of the particular laboratory.
In laboratories employing Bell & Howell continuous printers
(Fig. 6) that have been revamped so as to print the sound-track and
the picture negative simultaneously, a finished sound print is the result
of passing the picture negative, the sound negative, and the positive
raw stock continuously through the printer. In the case of one notable
modification, the picture printing takes place on the sixty-four-tooth
standard sprocket with the aperture so masked that the sound area
is left unexposed and the sound printing takes place on a sprocket
corresponding to the upper feed sprocket. This sprocket has been
replaced with a specially designed thirty- two tooth, hollow-center
printing sprocket suitably masked for sound printing and provided
with the necessary shoe mechanism. The casting of the machine has
been extended to provide for an additional sprocket above the sound
printing sprocket in order that the strain of pulling the films from the
flanges is not imposed upon the sprocket on which the sound printing
takes place. The drive of this modified printer has been completely
rebuilt so that the machine is now driven directly from a fractional
356 REPORT OF LABORATORY PRACTICE COMMITTEE [J. S. M. P. E.
April, 1936]
REPORT OF LABORATORY PRACTICE COMMITTEE 357
horsepower semisynchronous motor. A flywheel has been mounted
upon the shaft of the sound printing sprocket to insure steady motion.
Printer mechanisms and light-change boards are constructed to per-
mit printing forward and backward, thus avoiding the necessity of
rewinding the negative after each printing. On some machines of
FIG. 8. Bell & Howell continuous sound and picture
production printer.
this type use is made, of the standard Bell & Howell picture shutter
light-change mechanism, while others utilize specially designed resis-
tance boards for the light-changes. Details of various types of light-
change mechanisms will be outlined later.
Modified Duplex step printers (Fig. 7) for simultaneously step
printing the picture negative and continuously printing the sound-
track negative are in use. The adaptation is accomplished by attach-
358 REPORT OF LABORATORY PRACTICE COMMITTEE [J. s. M. P. E.
ing to and offsetting below the step picture printing head of the Du-
plex printer a continuously operated sound printing head in which the
film is pulled over a curved gate with a balanced shoe mechanism.
The sound printing head is run synchronously with the step printing
head at a speed of approximately thirty-five to forty feet per minute.
Both the picture and the sound-track light-change mechanisms are
controlled by standard resistance boards modified in accordance with
specifications of the laboratories.
Where continuous operation has approached its maximum, printers
have been engineered so that the sound-track and the picture negative
light-changes are controlled by specially prepared mattes that vary
the light aperture opening for printing both sound and picture.
These mattes are prepared for the timing of each reel of picture nega-
tive and sound-track negative printed. By automatically increasing
or decreasing the intensity of the exposing lamp by means of a govern-
ing mechanism, these printers will permit using the matte timed
to accompany a given sound-track or picture negative at various foot-
age speeds.
The new Bell & Howell single-operation continuous sound-track
and picture printer (Fig. 8) for printing both picture and track in one
operation is now being used in a number of laboratories. Details of
these printers have been previously published in the JOURNAL.2 The
light-change, scene for scene, is controlled by specially prepared mattes
that vary the light aperture in the manner previously described.
Details of the design and operation of this printer and of the con-
tinuous model D printer, in which the sound-track and the picture are
printed in separate operations, can be obtained from the manufac-
turer. Several Depue continuous sound-track and picture printers
using light-change resistance boards for timing are in use.
A few laboratories are using printers that are no longer manu-
factured, but by far the great majority use printers of the type de-
scribed above. All the printers mentioned so far are used for stand-
ard release printing work.
Quad printers are sometimes used for printing news releases to in-
crease the efficiency and decrease the time of production. These quad
printers are groups of four printers driven by the same source of power,
and may be combination step picture printers and sound-track
continuous printers, or continuous picture and sound printers in which
the sound-track and the picture are printed simultaneously. The
negatives, both sound-track and picture, are run through all four ma-
April, 1936] REPORT OF LABORATORY PRACTICE COMMITTEE 359
chines, thus producing four complete prints with each pass of a nega-
tive. The light-change mechanisms are carefully matched, step for
step, for each individual head in the battery of four, so that uniform
prints may be obtained.
Printers equipped with so-called "five-way gates" eliminate negative
rewinding and speed up production. These "five-way gates" are
movable masks in the printing aperture, which change position and
permit the sound-track to be printed first along one edge of the posi-
tive and then along the other, as the sound-track position reverses
when the negative is printed backward.
Each laboratory has special optical printers (Figs. 9 and 10) for
making wipe-outs, lap dissolves, inserts, etc., in addition to the stand-
ard types of continuous and step optical printers. Generally, how-
ever, these printers are assembled from standard cinema machinery
obtained on the commercial market. In many instances, printers of
this type are built in accordance with the particular specifications of
the laboratory so that unusual photographic effects may be achieved.
To describe the various types of special printers would be an endless
task and, since most printer manufacturers will make special print-
ers for effect purposes, detailed information upon the subject can be
obtained from them.
Because of the problem involved in superimposing foreign titles
for foreign release prints by methods that will be described later,
special printers have been designed that will print in one operation
the sound-track negative, picture negative, and title from a single
frame upon the picture area of the positive. The firms that have
constructed these printers have reduced their production cost and
achieved a greater ease of manipulation in making foreign release
prints.
Due to the increasing demand for 16-mm. sound-film prints, a
number of laboratories have either purchased, or had constructed
according to their specifications, continuous optical reduction printers
for reducing 35-mm. sound-track negative to 16-mm. sound-track
positive (Figs 11-15). Usually these printers are designed for re-
ducing the sound-track only, the picture being reduced in one of the
standard types of 35-1 6-mm. step optical reduction printers.
(B) Maintenance of Printers
(1) Electrical Circuits. — All printing lamp lines to the various
machines are generally of ample size to reduce the line drop to a
360 REPORT OF LABORATORY PRACTICE COMMITTEE [J. s. M. p. E.
April, 1936] REPORT OF LABORATORY PRACTICE COMMITTEE 361
minimum, and direct current is invariably used. In most laboratories
an attempt is made to lay out the printer room so that the distribution
of current to adjacent machines is not affected when any one machine
is switched on or off. Printing lamp current is commonly provided
by an independent d-c. generator, so that voltage regulation can be
maintained within ±0.5 volt. Frequently, special converters are
used so that the supply will not vary more than =*=0.5 volt for a 10
per cent change of line voltage supplied to the converter.
(2) Printing Lamps. — As sources of illumination, printing lamps
of suitable characteristics are selected, with particular regard for
their ruggedness and durability. Generally, lamps of greater watt-
age than necessary are chosen, in order that they may be operated
well below their rated voltage and so maintain reasonably constant
color temperatures throughout their lives. Often lamps are selected
according to photometric and electrical measurements to assure uni-
form characteristics. Usually, when using resistance light-changes,
printer lamps are so matched that the voltage-current characteristics
are similar. In most laboratories the filament alignment and the
positions of the lamps in the machines are checked daily, and exposure
tests are made frequently to check the illumination levels of the printers.
(3) Machine Drives (Footage Speeds). — Semisynchronous motors
are sometimes used to simplify the problem of maintaining the speed
f the printing machines constant. Special attention is generally
^iven to eliminating vibration, especially in the case of printers that
are not mounted upon solid, heavy foundations. Printers that have
)een specially designed and constructed by the laboratories are
usually built into very heavy foundations to guard against vibration,
t is common practice to drive Duplex step printers at speeds of
hirty-five to forty feet a minute whether they be single-operated
>r operated in conjunction with specially designed continuous sound
>rinting heads. Bell & Howell continuous printers, whether of the
ingle -aperture type or the modified combination sound and picture
aperture type, are driven at speeds varying from sixty to one hundred
and twenty-five feet a minute. Where special continuous printers
hat print the picture and the sound-track simultaneously are oper-
ated in direct conjunction with continuous processing machines, the
speeds vary from one hundred and twenty-five feet to one hundred
and eighty feet a minute. It can be expected that the speed at which
he printers are driven depends upon the footage production of the
aboratory and the mechanical limitations of the machines.
362 REPORT OF LABORATORY PRACTICE COMMITTEE [j. s. M. P. E
April, 1936] REPORT OF LABORATORY PRACTICE COMMITTEE 363
(4) Printer Light-CJiange Systems. — Each laboratory selects a
resistance or a mechanical light-change system according to the
advantages that either method may afford under predetermined
conditions of laboratory operation. No matter which system is
utilized, the laboratory endeavors to maintain the log exposure
increments, step for step upon all machines, equivalent in terms of
step density value when all printer tests are exposed upon the same
piece of film and developed together. Depending upon the number
of average scene-changes necessary, resistance boards are employed
that will permit making fifty to one hundred and fifty scene-changes
during the printing of a 1000-ft. reel of negative. These resistance
boards are obviously designed so that at each change of scene any
one of the eighteen to twenty-one light-exposure values can be
selected. The change of "lights" (as they are customarily termed)
from scene to scene is effected by a bar dropping past contact buttons
that have been manually set into a surface panel. The bar is moved
by a solenoid, the circuit of which is controlled by contacts on notch-
feeling rollers riding upon the edge of the negative. The positions
of the contact buttons in the panel are chosen by the timer, who
assigns the "light" values to the negative to be printed and cuts
notches into the edge of the negative where the light-changes are to
occur. The printing machine operator puts the contact buttons into
place.
The log E change per step of the resistance type of light-control is
usually held to such a value that the total change of voltage across
the lamp from step 1 to step 18 or 21 will not produce too great a
difference of contrast in the print. Change of contrast is due to change
of color temperature of the lamp with a change of applied voltage,
and, if the variation of color temperature is too great, obviously the
change of contrast will be objectionable.
The system of varying the intensity of the light at the printing
aperture by mechanical means is well known ; and apparently the one
most commonly used is the variable shutter-opening type utilized
in the Bell & Howell model D printer, although the aperture matte
system is constantly gaining favor.
(5) Printer Matching (Exposure Characteristics). — Printers are
usually matched daily by making a print of a standard negative
upon the positive emulsion being used, at a selected step on each
printer, and developing the several prints together in a suitable
developing system for the time, previously determined, that produces
364 REPORT OF LABORATORY PRACTICE COMMITTEE [j. s. M. P. E.
April, 1936] REPORT OF LABORATORY PRACTICE COMMITTEE 365
the correct gamma and print density in a given printer. The step
at which the prints are made upon each printer is usually two or three
points above the mid-step. If these prints match visually as to den-
sity, the printers are then assumed to be matched, step for step, one
against the other, upon the basis that all the printers utilize resistance
boards having equivalent changes of resistance from step to step, or
back shutters having equivalent aperture changes. If a printer is
out of match, the fixed aperture opening is increased or decreased
until the printer matches the other printers at that step; or the dis-
tance of the lamp from the printing aperture may be increased or
decreased until the match is attained. Often small adjustable re-
sistances are used in the lamp circuits for balancing the printers.
These adjustments are, obviously, made only when the condition
of the lamp itself is satisfactory. Frequently, densitometric com-
parisons of the exposed prints are made, in addition to the visual
comparisons. Some laboratories visually, or both visually and densi-
tometrically, compare such strips exposed at every step of each
printer every two weeks or every month. In addition to obtaining
information as to the matching characteristics of the printers, the
uniformity of illumination at the printing aperture is estimated
and it is determined whether or not the pressure of the pressure pad
is sufficient to maintain firm contact for good definition. This, and
all other mechanical details, are usually delegated to the laboratory
machine shop. Usually, to determine the uniformity of intensity at
the printing aperture, positive film is exposed at a predetermined
step, developed, and the uniformity of density over the picture area
measured with a densitometer.
The matching of printer sound heads is based upon the same prin-
ciples, the prints being made from unmodulated sound-track.
(C) System of Printing
(1) General Practice. — For timing negatives for making prints,
the visual method is used almost exclusively in East Coast labora-
tories, as it has seemed to be the most practicable and economical
since the beginning of the development and printing of motion picture
film. With this method the "timer" estimates, according to his ex-
perience, the step at which the light-change system of the printer
should be set to produce a balanced print scene for scene. Making
a balanced print from negatives that have been developed to an
366 REPORT OF LABORATORY PRACTICE COMMITTEE [j. s. M. p. E.
approximately constant gamma involves obtaining a series of densi-
ties in the various scenes of the print, which has been developed for a
predetermined time, such that the print will produce when projected
upon the screen, consistent contrast detail in highlights and shadows
of the various picture scenes. As the "timer" times (or determines
the proper printing steps for) the negative, he usually notches it,
cutting a notch into its edge at the fourth frame ahead of the begin-
ning of each light-change for a given scene. The notching is done
with a standard negative notching device.
Some laboratories, notably most of those on the West Coast, use a
timing machine which makes a print of a section of nine to eleven
frames of each negative. A foremost example of such a machine is the
"Cinex" timer. Each of the frames receives an exposure that is
matched to alternate steps of the printer, so that when the print is
developed each of the nine or eleven frames represents the print
density that would be obtained by printing with alternate lights,
from step 1 to the highest step. The "timer" then visually judges
from this print the proper step at which to print the negative so that
scenes of balanced density will result throughout given sequences.
Whichever system is used, it is the custom for the "timer" to note
upon a specially designed timing card the light-step or light-changes
for each scene in a given roll of negative. When Cinex tests are made
of production negative for the purpose of timing daily prints, the
Cinex strips are frequently given to the cameraman on the set so that
he can judge the printing quality of his negative.
The sound-track is frequently timed in the same manner, but the
practice of timing it by densitometric measurement is growing in
favor because the problems of picture composition and detail do not
complicate the assignment of printer exposures for sound-track as they
do in pictorial work. Both visual and densitometric methods are
being used, and as the majority of sound-tracks are re-recorded and
therefore balanced for exposure, one light is generally set for printing
a complete reel of negative. Variable-density biased negative can
be timed correctly only by measuring the unbiased, unmodulated
portions of the track.
After the negative picture and negative sound-track have been
timed they are given to the operator of the printer with their respec-
tive printing cards. From these cards, when resistance boards are
used, the light-changes are set up on the board for making the print
from the negative, or in the case of standard Bell & Howell continuous
April, 1936J REPORT OF LABORATORY PRACTICE COMMITTEE 367
printers, the light-changes are made manually as the notched negative
trips the circuit interrupter roller. In this case, as the notch trips
the roller and changes the light to the manually pre-set point, the
operator again manually sets the lever control for the succeeding
light-change ; whereas, in the case of resistance-board operation, the
electrical trip-bar is actuated by the notch-follower roller and auto-
matically sets itself for printing the succeeding scene, according to the
sequence established by the set-up of the board.
It is necessary for the printer operator to be sure that the sound-
track and the picture start marks are so adjusted in the sound-track
and picture apertures that the sound-track will be fifteen and one-half
inches ahead of the picture in order that the sound and the picture
be synchronous when the print is projected. After the first print is
struck off and processed it is projected by the timer, who visually
determines whether the proper light-changes have been selected,
scene for scene, for the print. If it is necessary to make changes, these
light-changes are entered upon the timing cards, and a second print
is made with the corrected values. It is often the practice to make as
many as four or five trial prints for both picture and sound-track
before deciding upon the final printer point settings. Regardless of
whether the sound-track negative is entirely re-recorded or there are
sections of original recordings in it, the timer projects the print re-
peatedly and makes printer point corrections for raising or lowering
the volume level of the reproduced sound in the various scenes in
order to produce the best quality and the most desirable effect. When
the print is adjudged as good as can be expected, general release
printing from the timed negative is begun. Some laboratories print
all release prints from a given reel of negative upon the same printer
in order to minimize errors. Similar procedures are followed in
making master positives, duplicate negatives, and special types of
prints.
(2) Title Making. — Negative or direct titles are usually made by
exposing regular positive emulsions in modified camera mechanisms
on special titling stands. On these stands the title cards are mounted
upon a special board that is adjustable vertically, horizontally, and
rotationally in the vertical plane. The distance between the camera
and the easel for holding the title is variable so that cards of different
size may be accommodated. The majority of laboratories have de-
signed their own titling apparatus and have taken particular care in
its design and construction to assure steadiness of the camera and the
368 REPORT OF LABORATORY PRACTICE COMMITTEE [J. S. M. P. E.
easel by mounting them upon a special lathe type bed. In addi-
tion, careful consideration has been given to the mechanism to assure
accuracy of the focus and steady motion of the film. Various means
have been employed for this purpose, such as using very carefully
milled registering pins and film edge guides. Because of their actinic
power, mercury lamps are generally used as sources of illumination,
the type M generally being preferred. After titles have been exposed
and developed they are timed and printed in a manner similar to
timing and printing picture negative and sound-track negative.
Making uniform background titles; illustrated background titles;
titles with relief lettering, with either plain or illustrated backgrounds ;
scroll titles, with either uniform or illustrated backgrounds and with
or without relief lettering; and animated titles, are such particular
problems and so dependent upon the choice of the producer and the
desires of the laboratory that no attempt will be made here to describe
the various production technics. For further details regarding mak-
ing motion picture titles the reader should refer to previous papers by
Crabtree and Ives.3-4
It is quite general practice in making prints for foreign release to
superimpose the foreign-language titles within the picture area, so
that the continuity of the sound-track and picture may be maintained.
This is usually done by making foreign-language negative titles by
standard title-making methods and then spacing the titles with No. 3
leader so that when printed in the picture area they appear syn-
chronously with the English dialog. This system of spacing titles
involves splicing No. 3 leader between the titles so that the negative
title reel is of the same length as the picture negative reel. This No. 3
leader is a clear support, with no emulsion coating, and is 0.005 inch
thick. Some laboratories use News positive film to accomplish this
purpose by photographing negative titles sequentially spaced to
synchronize with the English dialog. When the News positive film
is processed it is ready for use as the superimposing medium, obviating
the necessity of using No. 3 leader as spacer. When the foreign release
print is made, usually the title negative emulsion faces the emulsion
of the raw stock and the picture negative emulsion faces the base
of the title negative, so that the three films in contact pass through
the picture printing gate at the same time, while the sound-track is
printed in the usual manner. Depending upon whether it is best to
sacrifice definition of the title or of the picture, the emulsion side of
either negative may face the emulsion of the positive raw stock. It
April, 1936]
REPORT OF LABORATORY PRACTICE COMMITTEE 369
has been found more economical in some laboratories to use special
types of printers for this purpose. A printer supplied by the Andre*
Debrie Company prints the title from a single frame directly upon
the picture area simultaneously with the picture negative (Fig. 16).
In this type of printer the single-frame title is held in position and
FIG. 16. Debrie Matipo TU printer; this printer
prints picture, sound-track, and superimposed
titles in one operation. Only a single frame of film
area is used for each title negative. Insertion of
titles and light-changes is fully automatic.
printed in the sequence and for the length of time necessary for
reading. One laboratory has constructed its own continuous super-
imposing or title-inserting printers. They are so designed that
automatic stop and start controls for the single-frame title negative
can be preset; so that during the printing of a reel of sound-track
negative, picture negative, and the single-frame title negative, the
370 REPORT OF LABORATORY PRACTICE COMMITTEE [j. s. M. p. E.
titles from the single frame are printed in synchronism with the
English dialog, scene for scene, in one operation. The foreign-
language titles for use in these printers are made upon a high-contrast
photosensitive material, and by means of an ingenious optical system
are printed into the picture area from a single frame at the same time
the picture negative is printed. It is claimed that the method pro-
duces a print in which the title insert and picture have a definition
equivalent to what results from printing each negative separately
in a continuous printer, and, moreover, that it increases the produc-
tion rate because it is necessary to make only a single frame of a
given title instead of exposing sufficient footage to travel in synchro-
nism with the English dialog during the printing. The laboratories
using them contend that these printers afford greater ease in making
foreign release prints and a considerable saving in raw stock.
Practically all laboratories have available specially modified com-
mercial printers or printers of their own design for making special
effects such as wipe-outs, title inserts, and any kind of trick print
desired. These printers are so specialized that it does not seem
advisable to describe them, as they vary greatly in type. Further-
more, trick printing is such a specialized art that most laboratories
delegate such work to special departments of their organizations.
VI. PROCESSING
(A) Types of Machines
Continuous machines are now utilized for practically all types of
film processing, and rack-and-tank systems are used only where the
production output is not sufficient to warrant a continuous machine
or when some special effect is desired that can best be handled by the
rack-and-tank method.
The operation of a continuous developing machine is fundamentally
simple, in that the undeveloped film is fed directly from a feed reel
into the machine, or from a feed reel to a feed elevator having suf-
ficient footage capacity at a predetermined speed to allow the feed
operator enough time (two to nine minutes) to splice a new roll of
film onto the preceding roll so that a continuous band of film will
flow continuously through the machine to the take-up reel at the end
of the drying cabinet (Figs. 17, 18, and 19). The splices may be either
machine-made splices, produced by eyeleting or stapling, or carefully
made cement splices. Most of the continuous developing machines
April, 1930] REPORT OF LABORATORY PRACTICE COMMITTEE 371
are of the roller-rack, deep-tank type, having in the wet section roller-
racks parallel to the face of the film as the latter travels through the
machine (Fig. 17). Each roller-rack spindle is parallel to the face
of the film, and the rack is from six to twelve feet in height and carries
from eight to twelve loops of film, depending upon the design of the
(Courtesy of Consolidated Film Industries, Inc.)
FIG. 17. Wet end of Spoor-Thompson continuous developing
machine.
machine. Usually there are one or two racks in each tank, and the
tanks may vary in capacity from 120 to 360 gallons of solution. The
racks may be so designed that either all the racks in the wet end of
the machine can be lifted vertically completely free of the tanks; or
the upper roller-rack may be mounted in a fixed position, and the
roller-rack in the lower part of the tank mounted upon a weighted
elevator system so that it can be raised until it meets the upper roller-
rack. Invariably, in machines in which the film is propelled by power-
372 REPORT OF LABORATORY PRACTICE COMMITTEE [J. S. M. P. E.
driven sprockets, it is necessary that elevators be employed so that
the tension of the individual film strands will be independent of the
swelling and shrinking of the film. In machines in which the film is
propelled through the machine by friction drive only — that is, by
frictional contact of the film upon power-driven rollers — there is no
necessity for elevators. The film automatically slips forward or
backward in accordance with its swell or shrinkage, because the
power-driven rollers are always travelling at a slightly greater footage
speed than the film and because the tension of the film is such that it
will permit slippage.
The upper racks of rollers in the wet end of the machine are
generally submerged in the solution so that the film is exposed to the
air only on the carry-over loop from tank to tank. Because of special-
ized design, however, in a number of machines the upper bank of
rollers, whether on a rack system at right angles to the long axis of
the machine or parallel to the axis, may be from three to eighteen
inches above the solution. Usually in each machine there are three
or four tanks for development followed by a small loop tank for a
rinse wash, three or four tanks for fixing, and five or six tanks for
washing. The number of tanks used in the wet end depends upon the
lengths of time necessary for the various processes, which in turn
depend upon the number of racks in each tank and the footage speed
of the machine.
A method for the reduction of "directional effects" in continuous
machine developing is gaining favor in a number of laboratories.
These effects are caused as the film travels through the machine
by the diffusion of development products (oxidation products and
bromide salts) from an exposed area of the film into adjacent areas
that have had different exposure. The diffusion is counter to the di-
rection of travel of the film, producing a pronounced lower density
in areas of film adjacent to and following areas of greater exposure
(greater density). The effects are notable on type HB sensitometer
strips, as different gammas and differently shaped characteristic
(ZMog E) curves result from passing the strips through the machine
with the heavy or the light exposure areas preceding. The so-called
"turbulation" method is said to be satisfactory for minimizing the
effect. It consists simply of providing a spray of jets of developer
beneath the surface of the developer, impinging directly upon the
emulsion surface and causing greater agitation of the solution at the
surface of the film.
April, 1936] REPORT OF LABORATORY PRACTICE COMMITTEE 373
As the film feeds from the last wash tank of the wet end of the ma-
chine into the drying cabinets, it may feed directly or it may pass over
a weighted feed elevator. The weighted elevator takes care of the
slack, if any, between the drying cabinet and the wet end of the ma-
chine, and permits operating either the wet end or the dry end inde-
pendently of the other. This permits stopping either end of the
machine for a short time to take care of troubles that might be caused
by mechanical defects or film breakage.
Sometimes the wet end of the machine is in a separate room from
the dry end, or both the wet and the dry ends may be in the same
room. The first arrangement permits drying in a lighted room and
developing in a darkroom, whereas the second requires special illumi-
nation of the wet and the dry ends of the machine. Invariably Wrat-
ten OA Safelights are used for darkroom illumination of the positive
developing machines. Wratten Series /// (green) Safelights are used
to illuminate only the dry ends of the negative developing machines
because the new fast negative films must be developed in darkness
to avoid any slight possiblity of "light fog." The choice of arrange-
ment is dependent upon the desires of the laboratory as to the ease of
manipulating the film in the various types of machines.
The drying sections of the machines usually have from five to
twenty cabinets, the number depending upon the footage speed of
the machine, the volume, velocity, and conditioning of the air; and
the type of roller-rack mounting for carrying the film (Fig. 18). The
racks in the drying cabinet may be perpendicular or parallel to the
axis of the machine. Usually when perpendicular to the axis there
are two racks in each cabinet. Like the racks in the wet end of the
machine, these racks may carry from eight to twelve rollers per rack,
making eight to twelve loops of film, and they are generally from six
to seven feet in height so that a man of normal stature can readily
reach any section of a loop.
In the majority of drying sections the flow of air is counter to the
direction of travel of the film, entering at the bottom of the cabinet
and passing out at the top into the top of the preceding cabinet,
and so on to the head end of the section. Most laboratories now
dry with conditioned and filtered air. There are some, however,
that do not have true air-conditioning, in terms of constant tempera-
ture and humidity control, because the range of dry-bulb tempera-
ture and humidity is dependent to some extent upon atmos-
pheric conditions. Other laboratories have air-conditioning systems
374 REPORT OF LABORATORY PRACTICE COMMITTEE [j. s. M. p. E
April, 1936] REPORT OF LABORATORY PRACTICE COMMITTEE 375
permitting accurate control over a wide range of wet- and dry-bulb
temperatures in addition to allowing special air-conditioning for any
complete drying section.
The weight of water remaining in the film after the film has been
efficiently squeegeed prior to entering the drying cabinets is a major
factor in determining the volume and velocity of air necessary for
thorough drying of the film at predetermined wet- and dry-bulb
temperatures in a given type of drying section. On the averag
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